The Rights and Rank to Which We Are Entitled - Essay Example

--------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- The chapters from number six to nine have been authored by Dr. Thomas DeBlack, Associate Professor of History, University of Arkansas. His educational qualifications include BA from Southern Methodist University in 1973, MSE from Ouachita Baptist University in 1979 and Ph.D. from University of Arkansas in 1995. Dr Thomas has also authored a book 'With Fire and Sword: Arkansas, 1861 - 1874', published in 2003 by the University of Arkansas Press. His doctoral thesis on Lakeport Plantation is also likely to be converted into a book. Chapter Six: "The Rights and Rank to Which We Are Entitled": Arkansas in the Early Statehood Period During the early statehood period, Arkansas faced a multitude of social, economic and political problems. There existed financial instability in the state owing to marginal tax rates on land property, which formed the primary source of revenue. The economic slide of the state in 1837 was fueled by heavy debts, corruption in banks, depression in England, and failure in cotton and wheat crops. The prevailing Jackson administration added fuel to fire through short sighted policies. Specie circular, introduced to contain situation, further spoiled condition as people lost faith in paper currency. Arkansas had become synonym to crime, hostility, poverty etc. Duels between high officials and killing each other had become common during the period. However, there was an influx of a number of settlers which was primarily due to the donation law of 1840 under which the state provided every member of the family with 160 acres plot. About three and half a million acres of land was distributed under the law. The population rose to three times from 1930 to 1940. The people were generally farmers who either owned the land or worked on donated land. Lack of schooling infrastructure was another drawback in the Arkansas owing to general poor conditions. Among the rich, education was through private tutors. River travel formed the major mode of transport in the absence of bridges over rivers. Texas, with cheap real estate, was an imminent threat to Arkansas. Political pressure built up which led to annexation of Texas in 1845, infuriating Mexico. Gold rush of 1949 to California started the westward emigration. Prices of daily commodities shot up in the region. People underwent long journeys in search of gold and majority of them failed miserably. Those who traded were successful. Later, westward migration was for settlers or seekers of permanent home in the west. However, "Massacre in Meadows" brought westward emigration to an abrupt halt and Texas remained the main destination for emigrats. Chapter Seven: Prosperity and Peril: Arkansas in the Late Antebellum Period This period saw a new trend in economic growth mainly attributable to cotton based plantation style agriculture. Expansion of such economy needed a number of working hands and thus slavery became the order of the day. The population of slaves grew rapidly between 1840 and 1850 to 1860. White's population fell to mere twenty percent from sixty percent, as was existent in the past. Christianity was the religion followed; however, the black slaves hardly had the privilege to attend churches. The sermons to slaves were planned by the masters to suit their interests. Slaves were repeatedly preached about obedience. There was certain illicit or informal prayer meeting conducted among the slaves guided by their inner self, during the week nights. Here, slaves discussed their exploitation and oppression at the hands of their masters and prayed for equality of men. The political scenario was also changing with the new and young politicians emerging owing to the demise of prominent state leadership by 1855. Slavery controversy was emerging again after being contained by the Missouri compromise of 1820. California's demanded 'Free State' status after gold rush of 1849. Federal elections saw Abraham Lincoln emerging as the President of the union. The Arkansas state was divided on the secession issue. The rich section wanted to be a part union while others were opposed to it. A small rumour, regarding federal reinforcement of a garrison in Little Rock, escalated events, fueled by the governor's statement being misinterpreted and acted upon by the people. Soon governor lost control and the garrison was made to surrender. This move was severely denounced by the unionists as an unnecessary crisis situation. Chapter Eight: "Between the Hawk & Buzzard": The Civil War in Arkansas Arkansas history witnessed a dreaded civil war originating primarily because of slavery; oppression and exploitation of slaves. Other guiding factors included defence of own families and honour, excitement about war to break monotony of farming routine and independence, in case of black slaves. Bank legalization, formation of state senate, and constitution and reduction in governor's power were pursued. Arkansans were divided on secession issue; some joined the confederacy resistance group while others joined the union army. Thus, there was the formation of Arkansas militia against the union army. Bloodless surrender of Little Rock garrison and abandoning of Fort Smith by the federal army pumped enthusiasm into the Arkansas army. However, the militia lacked military knowledge and experience. Soon the euphoria of war turned into boredom of camp life and medical atrocities. The army fought many battles like Vicksburg, Gettysburg, Chickamauga, Atlanta, and Franklin. Though the federal army had vacated all posts, there were avenues of invasion that called for defence. Treaties were worked out with the tribes to bolster defence. The battle of Wilson's Creek proved to be a turning point, wherein both the army suffered heavy casualties; Arkansas army emerging victorious. The confederate army was reduced in strength as a number of ranks left army to return to their homes or work elsewhere. Now the uprising was subsiding and hence resulted in retreat. This was the time when union army invaded Arkansas and regained superiority over the depleted, exhausted and short on supplies Confederate army. The economic effect of civil war was also wide spread. Since the working men folk had joined militia, the crop production suffered. The southern way of living was reduced to battle for survival. It was difficult to sustain slaves. After President Lincoln's proclamation of freeing rebellion slaves forever, the resistance within the Confederate was ignited. While the confederate supported slavery, the factions with in wanted freedom and preservation of the union. Arkansas federates were in a deplorable situation and federal army advanced was unstoppable with the defence of the state weakening. The discontentment among the troops was rising owing to shortage of food, salaries, inflation etc finally culminating into disloyalty. The Arkansas Confederate dealt this uprising without with an iron hand, executing a number of defaulters. However, the uprising continuously increased in number and strength. The wars in 1864 and 1865 marked the fall of the Arkansas Confederate. Chapter Nine: "A Harnessed Revolution": Reconstruction in Arkansas The late and post war scenario marked political, economic and social reconstruction. The initial rebuilding steps were taken when President Lincoln announced 'full pardon' to rebellions with a future loyalty oath, except a few high ranking Confederate leaders. But, with President's assassination in 1865, the process was derailed. Formulation of new constitution, on the lines of first constitution of 1836, laid down foundation for abolition of slavery. However, in 1866 elections, Conservatives, comprising of democrats and former Whigs, were elected to power. The conservative party brought those people to power who were either governing the state prior to war or participated actively in the rebel. In the absence of slavery, there was acute shortage of labour. Plantation business suffered, as a result. Planters still controlled land and thus economic rebuilding for them was manageable, however the freedmen were totally devastated with meagre or no belongings. The only choices, they had, were to either work as labourers with planters and move to towns or cities to seek opportunity. To overcome labour problems, the concept of 'share cropping' evolved, involving leasing of landed resources for a percentage in profit. The radical reconstruction divided the seceded states into five military districts. Many former confederates were barred from holding offices or participation in constitution building. Delegates, comprising of primarily of radicals and also including conservatives and unaligned, got together in a convention and came up with a character advocating equality and free education. The charter gave equal rights to whites and blacks and proposed no discrimination on the basis of race or colour, Arkansas officially joined the union in 1968 with the 14th Amendment to United State constitution, duly ratified. Anew republican governor was elected under the new constitution. This was a set back for Arkansans. To regain power, there emerged an organization, known as Ku Klux Klan; a paramilitary organization. The Klan indulged in terrorist acts of killing unionists, republicans or African Americans. A militia war ensued between the Klan and the militia forces. Imposition of martial law followed in a number of counties. For five months, the battle continued and martial law was lifted only after restoration of law and order. With situation under control, the republicans pursued economic reforms and successfully established free education and construction of rail road. However, inadequate finances, corruption and political partisanship turned Republicans against Democrats as well as causing rift with in Republicans. This was followed by feud among the republicans divided as regular and liberal, better known as Brooks- Baxter war. The war was ended with the President's intervention and support to regular Republicans. The next election in 1874 saw power falling back to the democrats. The new convention came up with a new constitution which featured reduced powers rested with the governor and limited the states power of taxation. Soon, a democrat governor was elected and both houses were ruled by democrats. Summary The author has presented a well researched account of Arkansas history, covering the social, political and economic aspects in well demarcated chronological sections; early statehood period and late antebellum period, bringing out reasons that led to civil war, the civil war in the Arkansas and finally the post war reconstruction. The political turmoil in the Arkansas, with the power flowing back and forth between the democrats and the republicans, has been extensively covered. Slavery had been a major social stigma during the period. The economy in the period relied heavily on the plantation of cotton by the slaves. Education was a serious setback and only affordable by the rich. It was the slavery controversy that led the state into civil war. The state underwent an economic downslide in the absence of manpower during the war period. The reconstruction saw maximum swing of power in politics accompanied by regular changing of constitution, every time the power changed hands. But, finally the power was vested back with the democrats. The new society emerged with coexisting former masters and slaves having a working relationship as plantation demanded labour that only the former slaves could provide. Read More