Self-Reliance and Individual Resilience in 19th and 20th Century American Writing - Essay Example

?RESPONDING TO 'AMERICA'- A comparison of literary explorations of self-reliance and individual resilience in 19th and 20th century American writing,with special reference to works by Whitman and Ginsberg Literature is called the mirror of the human mind, not only because it reflects the ethos of the contemporary society and culture, but also gives expression to the opinions and contemplations of the individual authors. This may be the scenario in present times when humanity is thriving amidst the principles of democracy and egalitarianism. But the situation was not the same a few centuries ago. Going back in time, to the era of the 19th and 20th century, one might witness the kinds of restrictions and forces which narrowed the vision of the literary artists. Politics, religion, society and clergy were some of the spheres of routine life that left an indelible mark on the contemplative spirits of authors and compelled them to conform to the literary and societal conventions of the age. However, with the passage of time, the scenario eventually transformed to offer an opportunity to the writers to freely express their souls and minds and the same is reflected in the changing forms of literature over the years. This essay aims to explore the introduction and growth of the factors of self-reliance and individual resilience in the American literature of 19th and 20th century. The prime focus will be on the works of Walt Whitman and Allen Ginsberg, along with a comparative analysis of other authors of the time including Arthur Miller, Ken Kesey, Jack Kerouac, HD Thoreau, Ralph Emerson and Emily Dickinson. Walt Whitman- Song of Myself (1855) The poem Song of Myself by Walt Whitman is one of the most influential and widely-acclaimed poems by an American author. The poem embodies the idea of “self-reliance” propagated by Emerson which means the spirit of non-conformity to tradition and the belief that the best way of doing a task is one’s own individual way. The poem was originally published in 1855 in a collection of poems entitled Leaves of Grass. It was later divided into 52 sections in the later revised version published in 1867. (Loving, 1999) The poem is apparently a long epic poem about the poet himself. But unlike a traditional epic, the idea of the “self” in the poem stands for not a single hero, but a collection of all citizens of America. (Miller, 1962) It displays a huge difference from the conventions of the past in terms of form, rhythm and meter. Despite being condemned by the social conservatives and religious fanatics for its going against the established norms of morality and its flagrant depiction of sexuality and eroticism, the poem is regarded as an American classic in terms of individual resilience. It is unique in its openness and diversity and carries different sets of meaning for different categories of people. Right at the outset of the poem, Whitman declares that he is going to celebrate himself in the poem: “I celebrate myself / And what I assume you shall assume / For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you.” (Whitman, 1855) He opens with the theme of identity which is the primary theme of the poem. He, quite unconventionally, divides his personality into three segments: the “I” which participates in the daily affairs of politics, religion and society; the “Me Myself” which stands at a distance and quietly observes the world; and the “Soul” which is the deepest essence of his existence. The most remarkable theme is that of transcendental romanticism, or in other words, "the reader’s involvement in the poet’s movement from the singular to the cosmic". (Mason, 1973) The poet expresses his desire to “live amongst the animals” and find divinity therein. The narrator “I” is described in section 7 as having transcended the orthodox confines of self: "I pass death with the dying/ and birth with the new-washed babe .... and am not contained between my hat and boots". (Whitman, 1855) Literary critic, Alice Cook also elaborates that the key to understanding the poem lies in its concept of the “self” demonstrated by the poet as “both individual and universal”. The poem carries a democratic tone since the narrator is not a single individual, but stands for the common masses. As the narrator states: "I am large, I contain multitudes." (Section 51) and "In all people I see myself, none more and not one a barleycorn less/and the good or bad I say of myself I say of them" (Section 20) (Cook, 1950). In contrast to this transcendental approach, the poem is also rich in realism in its depiction of America post the Civil War and the minute details of daily life, especially in section 15: “The lunatic is carried at last to the asylum a confirm'd case / The jour printer with gray head and gaunt jaws works at his case / He turns his quid of tobacco while his eyes blurr with the manuscript / The malform'd limbs are tied to the surgeon's table / What is removed drops horribly in a pail/ The quadroon girl is sold at the auction-stand, the drunkard nods by the bar-room stove.” (Whitman, 1855) According to literary historian Betsy Erkkila, the poem represents the “political drama of a nation in crisis” and revolves around the then-prevalent issues of slavery, women’s rights, religious restoration and free love. (Greenspan, 2005) The poem is an assertion of the poet’s individualism in terms of his eloquent expression of his thoughts and beliefs regarding the equality of all, the omnipresence of truth, the inevitability of death and the invisible pattern of nature. He also voices his opinion against the self-righteous judgements passed by the clergy, the false assumptions of the people who think they preach the truth and the feelings of shame and guilt regarding one’s body. The theme of spiritualism is also reinforced by Whitman through his assertion that the soul is greater than the body. He believed that both the soul and the body are immortal since they are connected to the larger invisible patterns of nature. The idea is reinstated by means of a series of allusions drawn from the Bible, philosophy and history. For example, he refers to the crucifixion of Jesus Christ (section 38), the world’s religions (sections 41, 42), the Mexican-American War (Section 34) and Emerson’s principle of “self-reliance” (Section 2). The metaphor that dominates the poem’s imagery is that of a journey which begins in the day and ends at night. The narrator travels from one place to another, whether rural or urban, during the course of this journey. Section 8 describes the chaos of the city through "the blab of the pave, the tires of carts, sluff of boot-soles, talk of the promenaders.", while Section 9 shifts to the countryside at harvest-time and the narrator rides a hay cart. (Whitman, 1855) The poem is replete with sexual images, especially of a homosexual nature. Whitman was of the opinion that sex is a natural phenomenon and there is nothing to be embarrassed or ashamed about it. But this idea was not accepted by the conservative society of his times and the orthodox pubic denunciated his work on grounds of immorality and obscenity. Whitman uses the free verse style, as opposed to regular verse and standard stanza patterns. Though there is no regular meter, yet the poet displays a wonderful ear for rhythm through his style which according to him is “as simple as grass”. This was an intentional effort by Whitman to create appeal for the mass audience. Another feature is the use of diverse settings which are sometimes imaginary such as the narrator wheeling through the universe past the planet Uranus; and sometimes realistic such as the story of the destruction in the Mexican-American War. The diversity of settings goes hand in hand with the diversity of people in the poem. A typical feature of Whitman’s poetry is his use of catalogues, or lists of things. This is evident in section 33 which is a lengthy catalogue of the places visited by the narrator’s soul. A very peculiar characteristic of the poem is Whitman’s use of vignettes which are short and vivid stories that evoke a particular scene in the readers’ minds. The portrayal of the woman watching the 28 bathers is one such vignette, and so is the description of the wedding of a fur trapper and a Native American girl. Walt Whitman, with his Song of Myself, was a pioneer in the field of literary expression of individualism and self-reliance. Not only the content but also the structure and form of his works reflected an overwhelming sense of individualistic tone and a tendency to break free from the age-old conventions of morality and tradition. His works marked the beginning of a new era in American literature and paved the way for many followers who were yet to come to the forefront and bring about a literary revolution. Allen Ginsberg- Howl and Other Poems (1956) Of all the literary successors of Whitman, the most noteworthy was Allen Ginsberg. His name gained prominence with the publication of is collection of poems named Howl and Other Poems. Written in 1955 and published in 1956, this collection catapulted Ginsberg to fame and brought him at par with his poetic idol Whitman. His name came to be associated with the group of writers called the Beat Generation. This group, which consisted of authors like Jack Kerouac and W.S. Burroughs, was a class apart from the mainstream society and encouraged the reader to be his own self rather than trying to conform to the society’s idea of “normal”. (Raskin, 2006) Under the influence of philosophers like Kenneth Rexroth and William Carlos Williams, Ginsberg picked up the ideal of writing straight from his heart and expressing his innermost thoughts and feeling through his poetic art. He was inspired to raise his voice against the tyrannical and traditional culture that had destroyed many of his near and dear ones. (Ball, 1995) The poem can be divided into three parts based on its thematic content. The first part contains scenes, situations and characters from the poet’s own personal experiences. He calls this section- "a lament for the Lamb in America with instances of remarkable lamb-like youths". (Ginsberg, 2000) Here he describes his encounters with various artists, poets, drug addicts and psychiatric patients whom he happened to meet in the 1940s and 50s. These social outcasts, whom the poet proudly calls “the best minds” of his generation, were gradually destroyed by the rigid norms of orthodox society and culture. Besides, in this section, he provides a blatant description of activities like drug abuse and homosexual behaviour. This was condemned by the fanatics and the poem faced a trial on charges of obscenity, on the basis of one line in particular: "who let themselves be fucked in the ass by saintly motorcyclists, and screamed with joy". (Ferlinghetti, 1984) The second part of the poem, according to Ginsberg, describes “the monster of mental consciousness that preys on the Lamb.” In this part, he alludes to the Biblical idol of Moloch, the god to whom children were sacrificed by putting them in fire. In Howl, he is portrayed as an embodiment of the industrial civilisation which vanquishes the power of love and youth. In the context of this poem, Moloch stands for the oppressive forces of government, war, capitalism and mainstream society. (Ginsberg, 2000) The third part conveys Ginsberg’s “affirmation of the Lamb in its glory” (Ginsberg, 2000) wherein he upholds the talents and potentials of the so-called outcasts of the society of his time. He addresses this segment to his friend Solomon with whom he had spent 8 months in the year 1949 during his stay at a mental institution, fictitiously mentioned as Rockland in this poem. He expresses his camaraderie with Solomon by repetition of the line: “I’m with you in Rockland.” (Ginsberg, 1956) The poem Howl is, in fact, dedicated by Ginsberg to his close friend Carl Solomon, whom he had first met in a psychiatric hospital in 1949. In the poem he also frequently alludes to several of his friends and acquaintances including Neal Cassady, Herbert Huncke, Jack Kerouac, Peter Orlovsky, Lucien Carr and William S. Burroughs. For a reader who is aware of Ginsberg’s personal life, it will not be tough to discern that his feelings for Solomon are somehow a manifestation of his remorse and sympathy for his own mother who was schizophrenic and was lobotomised. (Williams, 1956) In this poem the poet explores diverse unconventional themes from different walks of life such as religion, politics, war, machines, insanity, drug abuse, sex, freedom, confinement, rules and regulations. He also uses certain potent symbols and images to enhance the richness of the poem. One such symbol is the American River which is portrayed as an evil force that demolishes and devours all valuable things. The river serves as a long extended metaphor for the passage of time. In lines 90-93, the great American River is visualized as the flood that sweeps away all visions, dreams, love and expectations, the remains of which are stranded on “the rocks of Time”. (Ginsberg, 1956) The poem shows novelty in terms of form as well. Ginsberg started writing the poem in the traditional stepped triadic form which was used by his predecessors and contemporaries. But breaking free from all conventions, he altered the form midway and changed it to his own unique rule of line length and breadth. The poem is a typical example of his experiment with the ‘long line’. Another innovative poetic device which Ginsberg introduced in this work is parataxis, or in other words, the syntactic subversion of meaning. This technique, which was used sparingly in his previous work Dream Record (1955), became the central instrument in Howl. (Miles, 2001) Arthur Miller- Death of a Salesman (1949) Written in 1949 and winner of the 1949 Pulitzer Prize for Drama, Death of a Salesman is considered by most of its readers as the best work of Miller and one of the finest American plays ever written. It is a sarcastic account of the “American Dream” and of the materialistic American society of the late 1940s. The play is a tragic representation of the conflict between the dreams and the realities of the life of an average family in post-war America. It explores the life of the protagonist Willy Loman, a mediocre guy and his efforts to conceal his mediocrity and disappointments underneath the delusions of his magnificence and his flawed notion of “success”. Willy’s has a fixation with the shallow abilities of attractiveness and material comforts as the key to success. Subsequently, he is unable to recognise the incongruence between his unrealistic aspirations and the mundane reality of his own life. While his younger son Happy and wife Linda, despite being optimistic, are firmly grounded in reality, his elder son Biff is fundamentally pitted against Willy’s wild dreams and hopes. Willy’s blind faith in his diminutive vision of the American Dream and his belief in material gain as a yardstick of self-worth results in his swift psychological degeneration. (Sandage, 2005) In Death of a Salesman, Arthur Miller experimented with several novel literary styles. He endeavoured to craft what we may call "tragedy of the common man." He illustrated that the hopes and worries of an average American citizen are just as worthy of dramatization as those of the mighty kings and warriors of the ancient Greek tragedies. Secondly, the setting of the play is unique, in the sense that most of it is set inside the protagonist Willy's mind. The readers experience majority of the happenings through his subjective standpoint. All the faint memories of the past showcased in the flashback episodes are conveyed from Willy's point of view. This is an instance of the Miller’s use of realism and expressionism. With respect to the grandeur of its canvas, the Death of a Salesman is often graded alongside the classic masterpieces by Eugene O'Neill, Thornton Wilder and Tennessee Williams. The pivotal American values and the American Dream of material accomplishment portrayed in the 1940s’ America in the play may seem quite aligned with today’s era of national prosperity and individual self-analysis. But the concepts had posed a radical challenge for the time after World War II, when the United States confronted intense and clashing inland pressures. The war victory had seemingly stimulated an unparalleled sense of confidence, affluence and security in the natives’ minds. But this apparent prosperity went alongside a situation where in the United States was gradually getting entangled in a cold war with the Soviets. Thus the proliferation of myths about a prosperous, consistent and cheerful American utopian age was mitigated by constant restlessness regarding the influx of Communism, racial conflict and socio-economic stratification. Many Americans could not conform to the orthodox vision of a flourishing middle-class as part of the great American Dream. Getting perturbed by this environment of disharmony, a new race of artists and writers attempted to bring about a revolution by harping on the concepts of self-realization and self-expression. These individuals raised their voice against capitalist notion of success based solely on material possessions. These artists upheld the philosophies of Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung about the role of the human subconscious mind in outlining human existence. They also highlighted the need for accepting one’s existence on one’s own terms, thus relying on existentialist philosophy. (Hurell, 1961) Death of a Salesman is often classified as a social satire on the American capitalism. Though it has been several decades after it was written, the subject of this drama holds relevance even today. Apparently, the play reports the agonizing conflicts within one family, but at a more abstract level, it deals with loftier concerns regarding American national values. The play scrutinizes the price one must have to pay for his blind faith in a false myth regarding the American Dream. It explains how the moral vision of the original American Dream has been tampered by the post-war era of American materialism. The modern readers feel that they are in no way living the American Dream, while half of them believe that it is not even achievable. Miller’s play conveys the idea that “success” is a relative term and what must be one’ concern is the price one has to pay for this success. A dream works as a source of inspiration unless it is stretched to the point where one’s success is no longer linked with one’s happiness. Ken Kesey- One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest (1962) This novel written by Ken Kesey serves as an exploration of the human mind as well as a celebration of humanistic values. Set in an Oregon psychiatric hospital, the novel relates the story of the inmates of the hospital who suffer under the repression of the dictatorial Nurse Ratched. The tale is derived from Kesey's personal experiences with mental patients, when the author was an employee at an asylum in California. Not only did he communicate with the inmates and observe the machineries of the establishment, but he also willingly took psychoactive drugs to gain a better understanding of the patients’ psyche. (Huffman, 2002) Hence, Kesey’s story goes beyond the obvious realm of personal experience to encompass the broader life of any individual who has undergone the bitter confinement under the stiff rules of culture and society. One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest was written and published at a time when the Civil Rights Movement was in full force. Many new changes were introduced to the way in which psychology and psychiatry was dealt with in America. This period also coincided with the movement in favour of deinstitutionalization in the 1960s which would have greatly affected the characters in the novel. (Scherl, 1979; Stroman, 2003) The novel is a psychological probing of the medical system and conventions of treating the mentally ill. It gives an account of the mental asylum as an apparatus of oppression which is analogous to the parallel ideas propounded by a contemporary French scholar Michel Foucault. Foucault claimed that obscure systems of discipline oppressed human beings on a wide-ranging societal platform, compelling them to repress their natural traits and actions. The novel investigates the adverse effects of confinement on a man and also ponders over the probability of curing mental disorder through the hospital’s rigid rules and regulations. The author is noticeably sympathetic in his portrayal of the patients in the ward. He captures their humanity and presents their ability to sense the truth despite their recurrent inability to grasp the reality. The plot examines the interaction between a nurse and the patients in an asylum ward. It is an in-depth exploration of the innermost psychology of a man who has remained within the confines of an asylum for numerous years. In this novel, many symbolic elements are synthesized and analyzed by the author. The narrator, the Chief, gives a vivid description of the subtle and coercive methods used by different authorities to control and manipulate the inmates. The dictatorial authority is very well personified in the character of Nurse Ratched who uses a blend of insidious rewards and punishments to control the inmates of the mental ward. The novel also condemns the emasculation of men in the contemporary American society, chiefly through the character of Billy Bibbit, the stammering inmate who is intimidated by both his mother and Nurse Ratched. (Swirski, 2011) The novel explores the motifs of individuality and rising against conformity, mainly through the conflict between Nurse Ratched and McMurphy. The publication of the book coincided with a time when the United States was staunchly opposing communist and totalitarian systems around the world. However, Kesey’s approach was radical in the fact that his criticism was directed against the American institutions themselves. His revolt against the flawed societal notions about the “normal” and the “abnormal” is personified in McMurphy who dares to question the irrational norms of the establishment and his defiant spirit is denoted by his free mirth, open sexuality, strength and confidence. Throughout the novel, the rational actions of insane men are placed in contrast with the irrational actions of the sane institution. The climax shows how the sanity of a rational man is compromised to preserve the hollow authority of the established rules. The novel defies convention not only in terms of content but also in its style. The author uses mechanical imagery to denote modern society and biological imagery to signify nature. McMurphy, who is Kesey’s symbol of unrestrained individuality and free expression, fights against letting the domineering society turn him into a mechanical robot and to some extent manages to retain his individuality. But ultimately he ends up being crushed by the modern society’s mechanisms of oppression. The society, represented by the hospital in the story, subdues and ultimately destroys individuality and natural instincts of the human beings through its repressive machinery constituted by people like Nurse Ratched. (Porter, 1989) Jack Kerouac- On the Road (1957) The novel On the Road written by author Jack Kerouac is regarded as a major work of the Beat generation, which was the product of a phase of intense conflict in internal and external spheres of American life. Amidst all the clashes and conflicts, the Beats were in search of a way to sail across through the world. They were individuals of the new generation who were looking for meaning beyond the conventional worldview. Through his works Kerouac promoted the Beat generation in the sense of "beatific" or idyllic and also in the sense of a 'rhythm' such as in Jazz music. (Bisbort, 2010) On the Road coincides with a point in past American history when conformity to tradition was admired and non-conformity was condemned. But it was not the first book to disparage the contemporary American culture. Many of the best sellers of the 1950s were, in general, characterised by a nonconformist attitude towards societal norms. The novel is a tale of a vigorous pursuit for sense and belief in life. It is centred on the voyages of Kerouac across the continent of America with his friends. The characters of his novel live their lives in a milieu of poetry, drug use and jazz music. The book explores the varied ideas of God, spirituality, masculinity and mobility in the 1950s and provides a liberal definition of each of these concepts. Kerouac weaves these apparently unrelated concepts together to offer another form of rebellion against the societal rule of conformity. Critics believe that travelling was a mode for the novel’s characters to proclaim their independence. Besides, both in history and in literature, travel had always carried the symbolic significance of epiphany and self-realization. Apart from the themes and controversial topics in On the Road, Kerouac's writing defied conventions also through his unpredictable writing style. His approach in this novel is regarded by many as a transitional phase in between the traditional narrative form and the yet to come "wild form" of his later books. He sought to create literature through direct observation in-keeping with the Impressionist style. He strived to produce a spontaneous version of truth without subjecting it to the process of review and amendment. His use of casual language and a comfortable syntax was a deliberate effort to portray all of the energy and emotion of the experiences and events as they happened. (Theado, 2000) Henry David Thoreau- Walden (1854) Walden, written by eminent American writer Henry David Thoreau, is based on his transcendentalist philosophy of living a simple life of self-reliance in a natural environment. The book conveys the author’s experiences over the course of two years when he lived in a cabin near Walden Pond, amidst a forest near Concord, Massachusetts. He artistically compresses the events into a single year by using the four seasons to denote stages of human development. Thoreau aims to provide an objective understanding of society through his own personal meditation.  The work dwells on the themes of personal freedom, social satire, spiritual awakening, self-reliance, simple lifestyle, inner peace and progress. Self-reliance, to Thoreau, is a principle that in social and economic terms is more cherished than anything else. To him, self-reliance can be spiritual as well as financial. He harps on the significance of solitude, contemplation and proximity to nature. (Thoreau, 1985) What makes it a very unique piece of writing is the author’s use of extremely precise language, long complex sentences, vivid insightful descriptions and an abundant use of literary devices like extended metaphors, allusions, understatement, hyperbole, personification and irony. Ken Kifer says that at times, Thoreau “likes to tease, challenge, and even fool his readers” with his plethora of satires, paradoxes, metonymy, synecdoche and oxymoron. (Kifer, 2002) The book skilfully combines the elements of autobiography with a scathing analysis of the contemporary Western society's vogue of consumerism and materialism and its distance from nature. Ralph Waldo Emerson- The Poet (1844) The Poet is one of the landmark essays by Ralph Waldo Emerson, written between 1841 and 1843 and published in his Essays: Second Series in 1844. Emerson clearly mentions at the opening of the essay that it is not an account of "men of poetical talents, or of industry and skill in meter, but of the true poet." The essay had a great formative influence on Walt Whitman who regarded Emerson as one of his literary idols. After reading the essay, Whitman was inspired to publish the first edition of his collection of poems Leaves of Grass in which he wilfully strives to respond to Emerson's appeal. (Miller, 1962) In the essay, Emerson reflects on the need for America to have its own fresh and genuine poets to compose literature about the country's merits and depravities: "Our logrolling, our stumps and their politics, our fisheries, our Negroes, and Indians, our boasts, and our repudiations, the wrath of rogues, and the pusillanimity of honest men, the northern trade, the southern planting, the western clearing, Oregon, and Texas, are yet unsung." (Emerson, 1844) He asserts that such poets should not be tied in the shackles of conformity and tradition. They must listen to their heart and give voice to their beliefs and ideas in their works. Without getting perturbed by the conflicts surrounding him, an ideal poet should not deter from his moral obligation to paint the true picture of the society. A true poet must attack the vices of the society and uphold its virtues. He must gather constructive elements from the depraved culture and help in the building of a new America. The same idea is conveyed in the final lines of the essay: "Wherever snow falls or water flows or birds fly, wherever day and night meet in twilight, wherever the blue heaven is hung by clouds or sown with stars, wherever are forms with transparent boundaries, wherever are outlets into celestial space, wherever is danger, and awe, and love, there is Beauty, plenteous as rain, shed for thee, and though thou shouldest walk the world over, thou shalt not be able to find a condition inopportune or ignoble." (Ellison, 1999) Emily Dickinson’s Poems (1955) Dickinson is today universally considered to be one of the most important American poets. She was a prolific poet who wrote nearly eighteen hundred poems during her lifetime. Of the entire collection of her writings, hardly a few were published during her lifetime. That too was typically altered considerably by the publishers to conform to the traditional poetic rulebooks of the time. A complete and intact collection of her poetry was published for the first time by scholar Thomas H. Johnson in 1955 under the title The Poems of Emily Dickinson. Most of her poems deal with the not-so-common subject of death and immortality. Her poems are exceptional for the age in which she wrote, both in terms of content and structure. She made frequent use of humour, puns, irony and satire. Short lines, lack of titles, slant rhyme, unconventional capitalization and punctuation are some of the recurrent features that mark her poems. (Crumbley, 1997) Her poem “I'm nobody! Who are you?” is a clinching remark on the contemporary culture that denounced individuality and self-reliance. The tradition of rewarding conformity to norms and suppressing free expression of the self is ironically portrayed in “Much madness is divinest sense”. Another remarkable poem “The Soul selects her own Society” encourages the readers to defy the age-old customs and create their own unique identity, instead of lamely adhering to conventions of the society. (Johnson, 1960) Because of the multiplicity of themes used in her poems, her work does not fit properly into any one genre of poetry. Despite receiving some harsh reviews and sceptic comments from critics during the late 19th and early 20th century, Dickinson’s poetry is now esteemed as one of the finest in the history of American literature and she has been ranked, alongside her role model Emerson, as a mistress of Transcendentalism. Thus the comparative analysis of all these radicals artists brings us to the unified conclusion that the American poets, playwrights, essayists and novelists of the 19th and 20th century brought about a sweeping change in not only the literature of their times but also the general outlook of the society towards life. The revolutionary spirit in their literary themes, forms and styles infiltrated into the minds of their readers who eventually realised the significance of self-reliance and individual resilience in leading a meaningful life. REFERENCES Mason, J.B. (1973). Walt Whitman's Catalogues: Rhetorical Means for Two Journeys in 'Song of Myself', American Literature, 45(1), pp. 34-49.  Miller, J.E. (1962). Walt Whitman, New York: Twayne Publishers, p. 27 Cook, A.L. (1950). A Note on Whitman’s Symbolism in 'Song of Myself', Modern Language Notes, 65(4), pp. 228-32 Greenspan, E. (2005). Walt Whitman’s "Song of Myself": A Sourcebook and Critical Edition. New York: Routledge Loving, J. (1999). Walt Whitman: The Song of Himself, California: University of California Press Raskin, J. (2006). American Scream: Allen Ginsberg's Howl and the Making of the Beat Generation, USA: University of California Press, p. 223 Miles, B. (2001). Ginsberg: A Biography, London: Virgin Publishing, pg. 182 Ball, G. 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