'Enlightenment: Britain and the creation of the modern world' by Roy Porter - Essay Example

? A Critical Analysis of Enlightenment: Britain and the Creation of the Modern World by Roy Porter Introduction This paper analyses Roy Porter's Book; Enlightenment: Britain and the Creation of the Modern World. The research will undertake a critical analysis of the enlightenment in Britain after the 1600s and how it affected the rest of the world after it was instituted in Britain. The paper will undertake an examination of important elements of Roy Porter's book. This will involve an analysis of some important elements of the development of Britain and its implications to modern development. The paper will begin by examining how Britain viewed the Enlightenment which made it unique and different from other people in mainland Europe. It will also examine the role that Britain's political unification played in its internal operations and how it made Britain's parliamentary system attractive and preferred throughout the world. Also, the rights of individuals in Britain and the legal system as well as as the Judicial system is examined. This is followed by a critique of knowledge and formal education throughout Britain and how it moved to other parts of the world. The paper also examines the taxation and financial systems that evolved in Britain and how it affected the development of the country. The research also assesses the role of the industrial revolution and inventions that occurred in Britain and how it supported the British national systems and structures. Finally, the paper examines how these systems were spread throughout the world through Britain's colonisation drives and Dominions which later became the basis of the British Commonwealth. Enlightenment and Britain. In Chapter 1, Porter asserts that the term 'Enlightenment' was perceived in a very different manner in Britain than it was perceived elsewhere around Europe. Due to this, the British people had a very different attitude towards the continental trend towards a new set of systems and structures. He identifies that the best context within which the British attitude towards the Enlightenment is to examine it through Kant's view of the phenomenon. Kant defined the renaissance as “man's release from his own self-made captivity”. This is very true of how things went in Britain. This is because the British people took steps to rid the society of political, legal, financial, and other ills through the creation of a high degree of empiricism, hard work, justice and fairness. This made Britain the hub for the creation of a unique system that would aid modernisation throughout the world. In most parts of Europe, the Renaissance and the end of the Medieval times came with numerous wars and struggles that spanned from external spillovers, ethnic differences and historical rivalries. This led to so much chaos on the continent. However, it can be inferred that Britain was unique and different from other nations in Europe because there were far fewer differences between the different peoples on the Islands. Also, different tendencies towards rivalries and destructive conflicts were contained through a well defined governance structure, a fair and impartial judicial system and the encouragement of development and improvement. The trends in Britain were not found in most parts of Europe. Basically because Britain was somewhat isolated and there were different issues and strives on the continent that Britain could observe from a safe distance and take decisions about how to resolve them in their own space on the British Isles. However, it all began with the British political unification which set the stage for the modernisation of the country and the systematic development of different units an sectors of the nation which allowed the country to move in a structured and well guarded sequence which proved to be an appropriate background for the enhancement of science and the arts and the improvement of the quality of life on the island. Also, whilst new territories were discovered, Britain was able to export its customs and systems to other nations and influence other people to become successful and prosperous. Britain's Political Unification Although the Norman Conquest of the 13th Century had paved the way for the creation of a monarchical system, the British governance model was not robust enough to survive after the end of the Middle Ages. This is because the British monarchy up till 1700 was like similar European monarchies. The rulers and the society had the view that kings were appointed with divine authority that was represented on earth through the Church. The alleged divine backing of European monarchs made the rulers think that they had the right to take decisions without questioning from any of their subjects. However, based on this 'divine right', most kings in Europe sought to assert their control over their nations and peoples without being accountable to them. This was known as the Absolute Monarchies and it led to serious problems elsewhere in places like France. However, in Britain, the beheading of King Charles I in 1660 set the pace for the rejection of the concept of Absolute Monarchies. Although this incident did not end the role of the Monarchy in Britain as it did in France, it provided the room for a Constitutional Monarchy where the monarchs and nobles were to rule hand-in-hand with Parliament. This was established after the ensuing incidents that saw Oliver Cromwell become the leader of the country. This gave room for the tendency for interest groups to lobby and seek their rights in different situations. This made the idea of Parliamentary Supremacy gain roots in Britain. Parliament Sovereignty earns Britain the title of 'Mother of all Parliaments'. This is because Britain was the first country to allow that extent of representation and participation in a setting where the Monarch had to stay aside for the people's will to have a significant effect on the operations of the state. Also, the Act of the Union in 1707 united the Parliaments of England and Scotland to the Great Britain Parliament. The Act of the Union in 1801 also incorporated Ireland into the United Kingdom. This showed that democracy could be extended and rule of the people by the people could be practised in a much larger setting. This led to creation of a springboard for the export of the Parliamentary system to other British colonies around the world. This also became the impetus for the formation of the British Colonial Office which played a significant role in the formation of democracy and the rule of law in British Colonies which now number over a quarter of the world's nations. Also, other nations including European nations copied the British Parliamentary system and replicated it around the world. France for instance took a cue from Britain's systems and formed a parliament that was represented by the people in a time where the king had shown that he was not interested in ceding any portion of his power to commoners. With the structures set up, there was the creation of a system whereby the power between the ruler and the ruled could be limited. This was somewhat unprecedented because throughout European history, unfettered powers had been given to kings and other people of noble birth. This can be traced right up to the years of the Caesars in the Roman Empire where ruling was equivalent to the exercise of unlimited power. Also, writers like Italy's Machiavelli showed that every rule in Europe was ideally expected to exercise power towards the attainment of his own personal ends. This indicated that the Renaissance was construed in a much different manner elsewhere in Europe. However, Porter points out that the British had different circumstances that caused them to be democratic and have leaders who were supposed to be accountable to the masses. Law and Human Rights Britain had a legal system that was similar based on debating and the provision of fair verdicts after the Norman's conquest. However, its development was relatively slow and its interpretations were sometimes inconsistent. Elsewhere in Europe and other parts of the world, adjudication was part of the rulers' duties. However, what made Britain's judicial system different and unique is that important writers like Hume, Locke and other English and British writers championed the cause of individual rights to human beings. This made the English legal system unique and much more responsive to prompt the Enlightenment in Europe and around the world. The writings of people like Hume, Locke and Priestly caused people who were not satisfied with the current system to demand equal rights and fairness before the Law. Already, the Monarchy had shown that it would respect the requests and demands by the masses and respect the rights of individuals. However, there were institutional challenges that made a quick change in the British system somewhat difficult. For instance, the Conservative party which grew from the Tory political ideological grouping made it clear that they would oppose changes to the status quo. As such, it was difficult for changes to come overnight. However, the arrangements and writings of people like Hume, Locke and Priestly made it possible for people to question and demand individuals' rights to fundamental human rights. This was absolutely missing on the European continent. However, the writings that gradually gained roots in a relatively more educated Britain led to a string of awareness that later led to the demand for equal rights and other things. Then came the Revolution of the North American Colonies. This Revolution was based on the writings and demands for the rights of the individual and the rights to liberty, natural justice and the right to pursue happiness. These English, Scots and Irish migrants from Britain succeeded in rejecting British rule which they considered to be oppressive. Although the American Revolution did not cause immediate changes to Britain, it got the British authorities to change their attitudes towards individuals. The many poor people in Britain were given some degree of emancipation by 1820 where more writers stepped in the shoes of Locke and co to demand better individual rights. Britain went ahead to abolish the slave trade in 1807. This was something that most nations were not ready to contemplate. The British migrants in the Americas abolished the import of slaves during the 1776 Revolution. This shows that the British people were more willing to recognize and honour human rights. Gradually, the rights of individuals were respected and the legal system was streamlined to protect the rights of people irrespective of their abilities. During colonisation, the British authorities established legal systems that were impartial and based on human rights around the world, from India to Africa through to Australia and Canada. The British migrants of America who formed the United States preserved the fundamental structures of the British legal system and honoured justice to this day! With time, other countries in Europe followed suit and adopted similar laws that boosted their move towards modern law. Taxation, Public Finance and Banking Roy Porter also points out that the British identified and replicated the Dutch monetary and public finance system. Taxation was instituted after the financial crises that came with the American Revolution. This led to the collection of taxes by William Pitt to fight the Napoleonic Wars. This led to the formation of a taxation system that led to the collection of money for the development of Britain. Although other nations had taxation systems, the British system enabled the world to learn more about how to build taxes, maintain a public finance system and banking structure [with its powers, based on a Central Bank] and use money as we use it today. The British subjects who gained independence in the Americas also tried to enshrine and promote the systems of public finance and taxation. This can be credited to the efforts that Britain had already made which the Americans knew about. With time, France, Germany and other countries also formed Central Banks and created legal tenders and currency as a legally binding store of value. Evolution from Metaphysics and Formal Education Additionally, the education system of the Medieval times were changed tremendously after the British institutions like Oxford questioned knowledge that was based on faith. These major British institutions took time to identify empirical ways of learning and knowing. This led to the creation of branches of study like Economics that was meant to question reality and acquire knowledge based on facts and not 'ought to be' knowledge. Empiricism soon replaced the traditional system of knowledge based on faith and dogma. This paved the way for research and the improvement of the society in a realistic manner. With time, institutions in Europe and other parts of the world used the empirical approach to acquiring knowledge. Industrial Revolution and Inventions After empiricism gained roots, the British society moved on to promote the Industrial Revolution which was based on improving the society on the basis of knowledge acquired. Colonisation After Britain gained foreign territories and dependencies, they instituted their modern systems of governance, law, public finance and the like on nations that had different organisations. This led to the unification and formation of communities. With time, these nations became competent enough to form their own governments and seek the best interests of their subjects. Conclusion In conclusion, Roy Porter's book provide a strong and compelling reason that supports the fact that Britain was at the heart of the Enlightenment that transformed the world to its current status. Britain's political structure which enhanced parliamentary democracy and its strong judiciary based on human rights played a major role in the transformation of Europe and the world. Britain's support for empiricism and sceptical approach towards metaphysics allowed it to develop its educational and scientific base in a way that added to the prosperity of its subjects. Through colonisation, British views about the development of societies was spread to other parts of the world. This gave room for the development of nations and communities around the world and prepared them for modernisation as we have it now. Reference Porter, R. (2001) Enlightenment: Britain and the Creation of the Modern World London: Penguin. Read More