Theories of White Collar Crime - Research Paper Example

RESEARCH PAPER Theory of White Collar Crime Adam Bappert of Mount Olive This papers aims at analyzing white collar crime in regards to studies of crime in micro and macro dimensions cross-sectional data. Numerous research findings and methods analyzed to obtain the required information and prompt an example that illustrates every aspect that pertains to white-collar crime. Furthermore, the paper reviews group-based trajectory analysis to find out the genesis and progress of this kind of crime in society. My study compels any possibility of doing away with this type of crime since it is avoidable. The theories discussed vindicates that this type of crime is avoidable in any aspect through introduction of heavy penalties to the accused to make the act prohibitive across all levels of social classes. In addition, the paper discusses implications on the white-collar crimes and ideas for future research. Introduction According to Button et al. (2014), the course of business transactions, one can commit a financially motivated nonviolent crime that is difficult to prosecute. Many of these crimes are not prosecutable for the reason that the perpetrators use more sophisticated means to hide their activities through a series of complex transactions. Levi (2012) describes most of these white-collar crimes to include healthcare fraud, counterfeiting, tax evasion, bribery, internet fraud and financial fraud. Heavy fines are on these offenses in an effort to do away with it but seemingly, the act has taken root in most developing nations all over the world. Penalties imposed on these kinds of crime are as heavy as community confinement, imprisonment, fines, home detention and even paying the cost of prosecution but still the spirit of this crime lurks within respectable people and of high social status for financial gain. Analysis of White Collar Crimes According Button et al. (2014), white-collar crime is spreading at a very fast rate in the developing countries. In order to trim down this crime rate most companies have hired Human Resource departments as a front line of defense. The human resource department at all times has defended the wellbeing of workers and the success of the organization. It has fought fraud and set warnings against any form of fraud in and around the workplace. The human resource has taken a step to prevent fraud by pre-employments by what is called screening program. Growing companies have also laid strategies to strictly check backgrounds of employees at all levels. The only corporate activity is prevention so easy to implement. The white collar prevention program came up with several remedies to this crime including occasional background check to ensure no irregularities. Policies apply across the board without exempting anybody either senior or junior. Button et al. (2014) adds that the goal is to detect any unusual sign or the behavior of the employee. Educate the employees to clarify the policy towards the crime and motivate employees by increasing their salary in order to boost their morale to understand the dynamic of their activities. Ghumman et al. (2010), explains that human resource has adopted a zero-tolerance policy towards fraud by employing qualified and professional personnel to help in the establishment firm policies and educating employees can help an organization prevent computer crime by changing of bank and computer codes every time can make employees keen and observant. Action can be taken very fast if any kind of white collar crime is detected. For instance, since most white collar crimes are fraud related, any employee found with mischievous act should face termination to avoid further loss or damage to the organization. The most commonly ignored fraud is the security fraud, that refers to unreliable practices in stock markets that allures investors to sale or buy falsely thus leading to losses as indicated in recent researches in regards to occupational crimes. According to Collins & Rothe (2013), white collar crime has become a social phenomenon. It has caused fear and concern and it is often associated with poverty and unemployment. Gender influences this crime, but analysis has shown that it does not influence it absolutely because women are tolerant in regards to acts as public official accepting a bribe or a patient inciting his doctor to file up a false claim in order to obtain a higher reimbursement. The general perception according to Collins & Rothe (2013) states that age and gender influence in regards to the respondent. However, studies have shown that respondents above forty-five years of age experience hard decision to their judgments than other categories of age. Variables like gender do not influence perception on how serious the crime is but contributes to political instabilities in a country in regards to severe judgments against the involved group. Yang et al. (2010) explains that, white-collar crime criminals tend to claim to be the first-time offenders when they appear before their sentencing judges due to their socioeconomic status since they are highly educated, wealthy and socially connected. Their social connectedness and integrity upholds their dignity even when they appear before the judge. It benefits the accused financially. Women ethical responsibilities than men because desire less drives a significant portion of the relationship between gender and ethical responses. In addition it explains why women fall prey to fraudulent and embezzling scandals more than men. Theoretical Overview Yang et al. (2010) asserts that theories propound to elaborate the concept of white collar crime. For instance, gender theory by Steffensmeer and Allan that stipulates gender differences in regards to crime. Besides, the theory focuses on three aspects of gender that is; gender norms, social control and moral development. Women’s access to organizational power can strongly influence workplace inequality if structure matters can influence the organization in terms of leadership and adaptation of the organization. Secondly, the context of offending that includes the characteristics of a particular offense. Button et al. (2014) asserts that it can be a setting where a different party commits the crime, the extent of injury and the relationship that is between offender and that of the victim, the value of property destroyed, the type of victim and even the purpose of the offense. According to Finland research, construction workers contribute to higher economical crimes. Equally women tend to express greater intensity of emotion than men. The General Strain Theory and White-Collar Crime According to Jensen & Hodson (2009), economic offenses such as money laundering, embezzlement or fraud are social crimes committed by individuals in regards to class stratification. These crimes can lead to numerous setbacks on the country’s economy for example the status of living can rise thus causing individuals to engage in civil wars, political differences. Ideally, if the nation experiences frequent economic downfall, it can cause a big challenges to the development sector of the country. Strain theory tends to explain higher rate of crime among the lower class of individuals. Lower class people tend to have trouble in achieving their goals through legitimate channels with ease. This easily drives them to crime. Most of these crimes are committed for personal gain or advantage. General strain explains the white collar crime in various aspects as well as corporating arguments of the classic strain theory and provides systematic themes on strain and white collar crime. These theories put in plain words the nature of economic strain and provide guidance on the suitable measurement of such strain. Integrated Theory of White Collar Crime The theory attempts to incorporate cultural and structural organization in regards to provision of opportunities that arises from misconduct in relation to behavior patterns of the society. Besides, the theory of interaction gives a basic overview to most of social psychological research since arguments are symbolic patterns found in the social structure. However, so far there is no motivation theory that has ever attempted to explain the real cause of white collar crime in the society. The concept of white collar crime has become a major field of sociological inquiry (Levi 2012). When Edwin Sutherland was broadcasting his speech on the concept of white-collar crime, he sensitized that criminologists have slowly come to agree with his claim about the importance of the crimes of the powerful and the privileged. Despite the theory’s obvious success, the number of researchers argues that his conceptualization on the white collar crime has outlived its usefulness. Some charges alleged that white collar crime passes numerous and diverse unrelated behaviors that disintegrate into smaller and more discrete categories. To some point the law fails when it to prohibit harmful elite activities and purpose broader conceptualization based on the deviance rather than criminality (Collins & Rothe 2013). The Theory of Differential Association Sutherland who formulated it in his first chapter in his book Principles of Criminology put this theory forward by stipulating the causes of other types of criminality. The theory also attracted attention to the social scientists and other theorists to the vital aspects of etiology of the deviance behavior. It also explains the different types of deviant behaviors. There are nine postulates of the theory by Sutherland that explains the existence of white collar crime; a. Criminal behavior is learned. It postulates that criminal behavior come because of learning not as cultural inherited trait. Clearly untrained person in any type of crime does not portray criminal behavior unless this person had training on the same. b. Criminal behavior acquired through interaction. If one interacts with criminals at all times it is more likely for this person can imitate their behavior and finally have a full possession of the behavior. Therefore, if a person keeps in company with criminals research shows that this person is likely to become criminal by influence. c. Media Influence. Impersonal agencies of communication like media, newspapers and movies play an active role in the genesis of criminal behavior. d. When criminal behavior is a learning process; it includes techniques of committing the crime, which sometimes appear to be so complicated that requires training for proper execution, but others are very simple. Specific direction of drives attitudes, motives and rationalization are also involved. e. Motives and drives learned from some definitions can be favorable or unfavorable. In typical society, an individual surrounded by persons can invariably define legal codes as rules that should be observed whereas others where the surroundings are unfavorable the legal code are violated. f. One becomes delinquent if excess definitions are favorable to violation to the law over other definitions are not favorable and are likely to violate of the law. This gives exhibits a clear indication that a person becomes a criminal if the contacts with criminal patterns do not align to the anti-criminal patterns. Criminal association means that associations that are neutral as far as crime is concerned have little or no effect to the birth of criminality. g. Differential association may show a discrepancy in frequency, priority, intensity and duration. This means that, association with criminal behavior with association of anti-criminal behavior may be different in that respect. h. Learning process and behavior association in conjunction with anti-criminal involves all mechanisms that were involved in any other learning. On the negative side of the aspect, learning the criminal behavior is not restricted to imitation. For instance, if a person is seduced is able to learn criminal behavior from the person who seduces him or her. i. Criminal behavior comes in terms of need and values; as explained it comes about general needs and values. For example, a thief steals to obtain money and a laborer works and strains to acquire money as well. The above theory discusses the causes of criminal behavior in general setting. It is not necessary therefore to apply all these postulates as an aspect of criminal behavior. The Theory of Motivation and Opportunity In an effort to find an appropriate definition of what white collar crime is, Jensen & Hodson (2009) asserts that the roots causes of white collar crime were actually for material gain in regards to socio-economic status of the accused. The root of individual motivation in white collar crime is because of track down directly to the culture and the structure of individual’s society in particular. Motivation and opportunity are two inseparable successful and interwoven theories of white collar crime. All opportunities are not equal at times because it takes the perpetrator’s assessment on the possibility whether it deserve a reward or caught in determining the behavior. Ghumman et al. (2010) asserts that an individual is able to neutralize it on the organizational level through social pressures and makes it available within the organizational sub-centers. Therefore, it is clear that the motivation for white-collar crime is directly or indirectly associated with the social structure of industrial capitalism and the resultant culture competition. General Theory of Crime The theory as explained by Michael Gottfredson and Travish Hirsch according to Jensen & Hodson (2009), stated that the absence of self-control, in collaboration with opportunity is adequate to explain all crimes at all times and in all places. They said that their theory is applicable to all acts like substance abuse, smoking habit, illicit sexual relations and even family problems. According to Jensen & Hodson (2009), people who seem to have low self-control and prone to risk have desire to immediate gratification. The offender finds an opportunity to obtain something for absolutely nothing .with regard to white collar crime, the basis of these theorists that white collar crime was specifically provided a quick and relative benefit using minimum efforts. These theorists assert that crimes like does not require motivation or pressure in any other form of criminal behavior. In regards to the general theory of crime, criminality involves the tendency of people to pursue short-term gratification with little or no consideration of long-term consequences arising from their acts. This theory postulates that people with low self-control are unable to delay such gratifications. Rational Choice Theory Ghumman et al (2010) asserts that the theory attempts to find out any possibility of changing human behavior by finding out how they work. The theory postulates that human being are goal-oriented and that they can manipulate behavior by altering situations so that these acts violates the law, but benefits them in achieving their goals in whichever means. From the historical point of view, the theory found a place in social science research. Recent research conducted shows that white-collar crime applies to two points that include; the accused, the crime committed and what the accused believed were the circumstances that would enable him or her to get away with the outlawed behavior (Geis 2007). These theorists look at Crime as a behavior. They tried to rule out the possibility of combating this crime in society. However, these offenders seek to benefit from their criminal behavior. Conclusion From the discussion drawn from various sources gives clear evidence that most white-collar crimes aim at material gain and often times very hard to pin point. The accused uses whichever means to gain financial benefits with regard to his or her socio-economic status. The theories of white collar crimes gives further information as to why the world faces criminal activities that need to proper concern in regards to saving the young individuals from indulging into unwanted cultural practices in the society. Presently, the rate of crime is high in the world because many individual are in need of money besides other relevant necessity to fulfill their desires. Reference List Button, M., Lewis, C., & Tapley, J. (2014). Not a Victimless Crime: The Impact of Fraud on Individual Victims and Their Families. Security Journal, 4 (1) 36-54. Collins, V., & Rothe, D. (2013). The International Criminal Court: A Pipe Dream to End Impunity? International Criminal Law Review, 3 (1) 191-209. Ghumman, A., Ghazaw, Y., Hashmi, H., Kamal, M., & Niazi, M. (2010). Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts of Pipe Drainage in Pakistan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 4 (2) 1671-1681. Jensen, G., & Hodson, R. (2009). Synergies in the Study of Crime and the Workplace: An Editorial Introduction. London: SAGE Levi, M. (2012). White-Collar Crime in the News. Criminal Justice Matters, 3 (1) 24-25. Weisburd, D., Bushway, S., Lum, C., & Yang, S. (2010). Trajectories of Crime at Places a Longitudinal Study of Street Segments in the City of Seattle. Criminology, 3 (5) 283- 322. Read More