Terrorism in the United States - Coursework Example

Introduction In the modern world, terrorism is one of the most dreaded activities that elicit fear and panic in the entire global community regardless of the social and economic development. There is no universally acceptable definition for terrorism. Weinberger (2003, p42) defines terrorism as a “criminal act by non-state actors that seeks to employ violence against unarmed human civilians as stipulated by the Geneva conventions for political reasons”. Terrorism is one of the most serious threats facing humanity in the 21st century. This paper examines the history of terrorism in the United States with special focus on the motives of the attacks, methods applied to execute attacks and the underlying events that instigated the attacks in the country. History of terrorism in the United States United States has a long history of terrorist attacks and this demonstrates that the act is not a new form of violence. Historical records attest that the practice originated about 2000 years ago when brutal Jewish factions such as Sicariii emerged (Bruce, 1999). Although the world had witnessed numerous brutal attacks on innocent civilians, the term “terrorism” was not used until 1794 during the French revolution. However, the initial meaning of terrorism was complementary, applied by the state to execute its mandate (Bruce, 1999). According to Burgess, (2003), the earliest recorded terrorist activity in the United States was in 1622. A native Indian group invaded Jamestown colony killing about a third of the total population during the attack. The colonial United States encountered numerous violent internal attacks and rebellions with characteristics of terrorism. The earliest recognized terror organization in the United States was Ku Klux Klan that was formed in independent United States in 1867 (Bryant, 2002). Initially, the group was pacifist but it comprised of racist white people. Nathan Bedford Forrest, formerly a confederate soldier was the first leader of Ku Klux Klan. In 1868 American elections, the group embarked on violence, threats and killing of black people and Republic Party supporters. The organization’s attacks on the innocent population during elections were highly influential in determining early voting pattern across the United States because the group was supporting the Democrats (Burgess, 2003). According to Bryant (2002), the Ku Klux Klan killed over 3000 people, mainly freed black slaves and moderate Republican Party supporters by the time the group reduced its activities and went underground in 1872. The early twentieth century experienced an increased number of terror attacks in the United States. According to Burgess (2003), President McKinley was murdered in 1901 by extremists and in 1920 terrorists bombed the Wall Street, killing thirty and injuring over 300 people. Moreover, terrorists bombed Los Angeles times building in 1910, killing 21 people in the premises. The period between 1920 and 1960 recorded reduced terror attacks in the United States territory. However, the following decade experienced an increased terror attacks on America interests. This period was characterized by increasing application of the air transport to carry passengers along air routes connecting United States and other countries. The airplanes became new target for terrorists and in 1962, a continental airline plane crashed and then exploded in Missouri, US killing all 45 passengers on board. The American air safety authorities identified terrorism as the cause of the accident (Bruce 1999, p58) The 1960s experienced an upsurge of domestic violence in the United States. According to Casey (2004, p 47), the country witnessed increased violence from the youths who formed a major component of the increasing civil rights movements that lobbied for the rights of minority and disenfranchised groups in the United States. From 1960s to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, several anti-communist, leftists and ethno nationalist organizations emerged in the United States, perpetrating terrorism in the same measure. Some of these organizations included the Black Panthers, Symbionese Liberation Army, Black Liberation Army and Weather Underground Organization among others (Burgess, 2003). Since the disintegration of the Soviet Union in the early 1990 up to date, white nationalist groups and individuals have been conducting terror attacks in the United States’ territory except the September 11 attacks in New York. Motives of terror attacks The terror attacks in the United States history have been motivated by various factors. The 1622 Indian massacre was lead by Powhatan a native Indian resulted to the deaths of about 347 English settlers in the Jamestown, which represented about a third of the entire settlers’ population. According to Miller et al (2000), the settlers were ambushed and the attackers killed them indiscriminately, including children and women. The motive of the attack was displacement and mistreatment by the settlers. The natives were responding to forced colonial settlement on their ancestral land, causing displacement and interference with their traditional lifestyle. According to Crenshaw (1981), the Ku Klux Klan a terror organization that supported the supremacy of the white people and continuous exploitation of the blacks emerged in 1863, in independent America. The motive of the terror attacks by the organization was to prevent the freed slaves from exercising their voting rights of electing Republican leadership that advocated equality among all the racial groups in the country. Hence, by preventing ascendancy of the Republicans to power, Ku Klux Klan intended to perpetuate the dominance of the white race over the blacks and native communities in the United States. In the early 20th century, economic disparities became a major motivation for launching violent attacks against the established enterprises and the political class in the early 1900s (Crenshaw, 1981). The attacks were characterized by an element of lawlessness, with no intention of terrorism. The Los Angeles Times bombing in 1910 and the Wall Street bombing in 1920 are examples of terror attacks that were motivated by economic inequalities in the American society. According to Bruce (1999), the Los Angeles Times attack killed 21 people and wounded over a hundred Americans. The terror attack was carried out by a member of a union representing the rights of workers employed in structural iron industry in the United States. Hence, the early 1900s terror attacks were anarchist movements aggravated by capitalism in the American economic structures. The period from 1960 up to the end of communism in the early 1990s witnessed changes in motivations of terrorists in the United States. In early 1960s, American youths protested strongly against domestic American imperialism leading to increased civil rights activism lead by black activists fighting for equality and end of discrimination in the American society. Other ideals that catalyzed militancy included the agitation for equality and recognition of minority groups such as gays, lesbians, and bisexuals (Crenshaw, 1981). Hence, the motivations for terror attacks in the united states from 1960s up to the breakdown of the soviet union in early 1990 was motivated by nationalist, fascist and other ideologies that emerged from the two competing super powers , the soviet union and the united states. Some of the prominent radical organizations that emerged in the united during this period included the Black Nationalist militants, reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan and the Black Panthers among other radical factions. After the break down of the soviet unions in the early 1990s, terrorist attacks in the United States were motivated by white nationalist motive (Burgess, 2003). Some of the attacks included the Oklahoma City bombing in 1995 and the World Trade Centre attack in 1993 (Miller et al 2000). However, the September 11 attacks in 2001 were driven by various motives, including the presence of American military forces Saudi Arabia, international economic sanctions that had been imposed on Iraq and the continuous military support that United States provide Israel in the Middle East (German, 2007: 69) Methods used to execute terror attacks Terrorists used diverse methods to execute attacks on American territory. The choice of methods applied vary depending on the nature of the intended target, the objectives of the attacks, availability of relevant logistical and technical support in addition to the security status of the targeted area (Bryant, 2002). In the course of American history, the methods used by terrorist have changed gradually in relation to development of technology and effects of globalization. In the colonial America, the native Indian population during the Indian massacre used rudimentary tool and weapons to execute their missions (Miller, et al 2000). According to Miller et al (2000), the natives’ seventeenth century weapons were mainly made of iron and wood. Hence, their arsenals included sharpened sticks, knives, and other sharp implements made of iron. The native Indians had an organized administrative structure comprising of a military unit headed by the tribal chief. In 1622, they ambushed the colonial settlers in Virginia, slaughtering, stabbing and bludgeoning a quarter of Jamestown population to death. The attacks were aimed at asserting the superiority of the natives over the immigrant colonial community that was mistreating and displacing them from their ancestral land (Miller et al 2000). After United States obtained independence from Britain and the subsequent abolition of slave trade, the Ku Klux Klan organization emerged as prominent terror organization. During the early period, guns were the most common weapons used by the organization to attack the targeted groups of people in the country. According to German (2007, p52), Ku Klux Klan murdered the freed slaves in masses, in addition to threatening and intimidating them to win their submission. Hence, the attacks were intended to instill fear in the black community and Republican supporters in order to discourage them from voting. In early 1900’s technological advancement had produced more deadly weapons including dynamite explosives and bombs. The bombs were used by the established terror organizations to cause heavy fatalities, destroy prominent buildings in addition to inflicting widespread terror to the targeted population. These types of terror methods were applied in conjunction with lighter weapons by various terror organizations in the United States throughout the 20th century. The development of remote controlled explosives in the century enhanced their effectiveness in inflicting heavy damage to the target (Weinberger 2003). In the modern world, development of biological weapons provides terror organizations with more options of inflicting potentially fatal infections to the targeted populations. Presently, security agencies are contending with the development of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction by militant states, which threatens global peace and security. In September 11 attacks, hijacked passenger planes were crashed at World Trade Centre killing and wounding thousands of people. The attack was conducted by suicide bombers, a method of terrorism widely applied in Middle East (CTAWU, 1997). Historical context of the terrorism attacks In the colonial America, the Native Americans attacked immigrants from European countries for settling in their lands. In 1607, European immigrants from England established the first thriving settlement in Jamestown, displacing and interrupting the lives of the local people (Miller, et al 2000). Although the natives initially accommodated the European immigrants, the Englishmen violently displaced, and interfered with the local people’s lifestyle. This created tension and resentments between the natives and the colonial settlers and the locals directed their wrath to the intruders. Following the United States independence from colonial rule, slavery was legal in the world and most African Americans were slaves of the white people. However, in the mid 19th century, the Civil War broke out and the Union, slavery abolitionist won the battle defeating the Confederates who were against abolition of slavery (Burgess, 2003). Consequently, slavery was abolished leading to racial supremacy conflict between the black and whites. In the early 1900, the United States and the European continent society were undergoing drastic economic changes brought by industrialization in the previous century. Some of the major impacts of industrialization and mass production emerged and became prominent during this period. These included industrial unrests, protests and demonstrations by workers in the manufacturing plants (Bryant, 2002). Mass production overworked workers and lack of adequate compensation in addition to poor working conditions created resentments. On the other hand, the rich were becoming wealthier and the gap between the opulent and the working class widened. The emerging communism ideology in the world catalyzed the existing conflict leading to violent terror attempts in the United States (German, 2007). United States experienced significant terror attacks from 1960s to early 1990s. The period was characterized by emergence of anti- colonial, nationalism and communism ideals in addition to other controversial ideologies such as fascism across the United States and the world. In early 1960s, the war in Vietnam and Cambodia elicited strong opposition from the American youth population, because of heavy loss of military lives on a cause unpopular with American interests. During this period, communism ideology became a major global influence, challenging capitalism in the world. Consequently numerous organizations in United States developed, agitating for diverse rights that eventually developed into radicalism and terrorism. The collapse of the Soviet Union in early 1990s established a new order and capitalism in the world. However, in the Middle East, Iraq under President Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait and threatened annihilating Israel state. The United States military intervened, pushing Saddam Hussein forces out of Kuwait. United States increased its military presence in the region by establishing bases in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. The intervention protected Israel from increasing threats originating from the neighboring Arabic countries. The increased involvement of United States in the Middle East created resentments from the Arabic countries, who viewed the establishment of military bases in Middle East as unwarranted aggression. Moreover, the strong ties between Israel and United States fuelled anti- American sentiments in the Middle East (Weinberger, 2003). This resulted to emergence of terror groups in the region, targeting Israel and American interests. Al-Qaida terror organization is one of the most prominent anti American militant faction that developed in the 1990s from the Middle East region. The group claimed responsibility of bombing American embassies in East Africa in 1998 and three years later September 11 attacks in New York. Common themes of terrorism The terror attacks waged on American interests in the history of the country has various similarities to the attacks on other countries in the world. Hatred is one of the common themes in all terror attacks across the world and it originates from a sense of injustice. In colonial period, European imperialism spread across the world. The colonial settlers invaded and established settlements in foreign countries. In order to win the submission of the native people, Europeans used brutal violence and intimidation (Miller, et al 2000). The native people including blacks were considered inferior to the settlers and were condemned to slavery. Consequently, many native people died and suffered inhuman treatment from the colonial rulers. This created as sense of resentment among the local people, because the invasion by colonialists and subsequent settlement were not justified. From the onset colonialism, it is ironical that foreign settlers regarded violent reprisal s by the natives as terrorism, whereas the colonialists justified their imperialism. European settlers encountered violent resistance in virtually all countries they settled including Africa. During industrialization, workers across European countries encountered social and political injustice from the politicians and the industrialists. This resulted to emergence of industrial strikes and militancy targeting the political and wealthy people. In Europe, communism ideology developed to counter the established capitalism. The resulting injustice from Europe spread into United States triggering a series of attacks (Burgess, 2003). The conviction that violence is an effective method of resolving disputes, initiating change is common theme in American terror attacks, and others carried out in the world. This resulted to widespread use of deadly weapons, targeting the offending party to inflict the greatest damage possible. The establishment of Israel state in the Middle East created anti -Semitic ideologies and the offended Arabs factions resorted to violence as the last resort of resisting the occupation (Crenshaw, 1981). Suicide bombing became a common method of attacking Israeli interests in the Middle East. This method of terrorism has been applied in attacking United States’ interests in the country and overseas. In 1998 American embassy bombings in East Africa, suicide bombers drove into the premises and they died in the resulting explosions. This form of terror attack was replicated in September 11 attacks where terrorists crashed hijacked planes on the World Trade Centre and the Pentagon premises. The September 11 terror attacks are deadliest ever on American territory in time of peace. Besides the fatalities, the attacks inflicted phobia for flying in many people in the United States (German, 2007). Conclusion The September 11 attacks in New York demonstrated the ever-increasing vulnerability to terror attacks in the world in spite of the advance in intelligence and technology. Although the attack was the most devastating in the recent American history, the country has a long history of being a target of terrorists. In the course of history, the motives for terrorism and methods of executing the attacks on a particular territory are consistently changing. Casey (2004) attributes the changes to economic, political and social transformations that have gradually occurred in the course of globalization. Militant groups and individuals who are convinced that the action would restore social and political justice continue executing terror attacks in the United States and other parts of the world using violence. References Bruce, H.(1999). Inside terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press Bryant, J.(2002). Ku Klux Klan in the reconstruction era. Atlanta: The New Georgia Encyclopedia Burgess, M.( July 2, 2003). A brief history of terrorism. Retrieved on 23 October 2011 from http://www.cdi.org/friendlyversion/printversion.cfm?documentID=1502 Casey, J. (2004). Managing joint terrorism task force resources. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 73(11): 43-97. Crenshaw, M. (1981). Causes of terrorism. Comparative Politics, 13(4), pp 379-400. CTAWU (Counterterrorism Threat Assessment And Warning Unit)(1997). Terrorism in the United States 1996. Retrieved on 23 October 2011, from http://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/terror_96.pdf German, M. (2007).Thinking like a terrorist: The insight of a FBI undercover agent. Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books. Miller, P. et al (2000). Indian massacre of 1622. New York: Alphascript Publishing. Weinberger, J. (2003). Defining terror: The Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations, 4(1); pp 87-119. Read More