Criminal Justice Comprehension Issues - Essay Example

? CRIMINAL JUSTICE COMPREHENSIVE EXAM Criminal Justice Comprehensive Exam Question Criminological Theory Describe the current ‘crime picture’ Cybercrime refers to any criminal activity that is conducted over the internet and has been steadily rising over the years. These attacks are malicious because they include stealing of a company's identity and intellectual property (Finklea & Theorhary, 2013). These include bank account numbers, passwords and other confidential information that have a significant bearing on the company's revenue. The perpetrators of such crimes have been known to create and distribute viruses that have been known to disrupt a company's daily operations. Cybercrimes vary in their nature; there are those criminals who use the internet to accomplish other traditional crimes like drug trafficking while there are those who utilize this technology to carry out the technological crimes like bank fraud and identity theft (Ponemon Institute, 2012). Compare your findings above in (a) to previous years. In 2011, the average cost of cybercrime was estimated at $8.4 million which represented a 6 percent increase in cost from a previous study (Ponemon Institute, 2012). The number of attacks also increased by 42 percent from 72 successful attacks per week to 102 successful attacks per week (Ponemon Institute, 2012). The Identity Theft Resource Center (ITRC) reported that there was a decrease in data breech in 2011 (n=419). It was also reported that this decline came after there had been an increase in 2006 (n=662) of breeches which characterized a wide range of cybercrimes (Finklea & Theorhary, 2013). Apply a criminological theory (just one!) to describe why this particular crime problem exists to the extent that it does, The psychoanalytical theory of crime was developed by Sigmund Freud to explain some of the causes of crime in the world. In his theory, the human personality has three psychic structures commonly referred to as the identity, the ego and the super ego (Toch, 1979). Through the identity, one seeks to pursue instant needs without any thoughts or analysis. Through the ego, one seeks to pursue needs that are influenced by their educational status and socialization processes. The super ego on the other hand results from all lessons that individuals have learned from their parents. Therefore, crime will often result when a person's identity surpasses their super ego resulting in actions that are only fueled by apparent need without further thought of their consequences. Therefore, the hacker will perform the classical psychological crime because of their apparent need for social rewards in the form of fame or money. They do so without paying attention to the obvious consequences like punishment by the law. The structures of education and family lessons have failed to take root in this person's identity because they are still driven by material needs. It is because of this that programs to prevent hacking are developed that focus on administration of computer ethics education at the early stages of life of a child (Ponemon Institute, 2012). According to the theory in (c), explain the changes in the pattern of the crime from previous years compared to today There has been a significant increase in the costs that have been incurred in cybercrime in 2011. This can be attributed to the policy that was introduced to enhance cyber space security. This was the National Strategy for Trusted Identities in Cyberspace: Enhancing Online Choice, Efficiency, Security, and Privacy that was released in April 2011 (Finklea & Theorhary, 2013). this policy was meant to create an identity ecosystem whereby individuals were to authenticate their on-line identities and the identities of their digital devices. Through the establishment of these laws, hackers perceived a challenge presented by the President and sought to connect with their identities (Sigmund Freud's theory). Hence in order to seek fame and powers that had been denied by the enactment of this policy, hackers increased the number of attempts they made at attacking internal networks. Question 2: Media Relations How do the media influence both macro (structural level) and micro (individual level) behavior? Media has a significant influence on the macro behavior of society. This is because it has been fundamental in focusing on issues that have been the subject of government policy. The media is perceived to be able to present issues to the public in a manner that can incite the public to lobby for government action on certain issues (Shapiro & Lang, 1991). It is through this way that the media has been able to influence government policies on various issues. The media also influences micro behaviors which represent the nature in which people relate to one another. It may highlight the plight of certain people thereby mobilizing public support for people in such situations. This can be seen in the case of media highlighting the plight of people whose lives have been ruined by natural calamities and the overwhelming material and social support that follows. How is the theoretical perspective social constructionism applied in researching and understanding how the media work? Social constructionism refers to a process whereby reality is designed by the way in which people view the world and their reasons for doing so (Shapiro & Lang, 1991). It is thus a skewed form of reality that bases its functionality on the aspect of subjectivity whereby aspects of reality are shaped in a manner based on people's perceptions. It lacks objectivity because reality derives its functions from an already biased view (Shapiro & Lang, 1991). The media has often been implicated in molding reality through a less objective manner. The media presents the audience with a view of events as they occur. This is accompanied by a commentary of sorts that seeks to explain the nature and frequency of occurrence of these events. The media can thus choose to inflate the frequency of occurrence of certain events by showing them several times. In addition, they can also provide only a certain version of events thus allowing the viewer only a certain fraction of events that occurred. This presents a skewed reality that lacks objectivity because it is being represented in through the perceptions of the media. Often, the journalist or media house has got certain values that it seeks to forward. Hence reality will be presented through their interpretation of fundamental values in society. Explicitly describe a particular occasion in which the media focused on one event (or string of related events) and helped to shape social policy in the US. Did the policy or policies developed in (c) improve or worsen the problem being addressed? Did it both improve AND worsen the problem? The Latino population in the United States according to estimates by the U.S Census Bureau (2004) was almost 40 million. They form a significant section of the voting bloc in Florida but despite their strong influence and cultural heritage, they were still not well catered for as regards health care. Hence various presidential aspirants in for the 2004 American Presidential elections utilized the media as a form of public relations campaign tool to target the Latino community in the area and encourage them towards a fuller participation in civic life and by extension, vote for them (Martinez, nd). This issue of health care coverage formed one of the most fundamental issues during that time and various presidential contenders made promises to address the issue once they were elected. The efforts of the media shaped public policy as relates to the health care policy in the United States after the 2004 election because the President was held to account by the media for promises of health care reform that had been made during the campaign period. The inclusion of the media thus improved the situation of health care coverage among the Latino population in the United States. Question 3: Budget Analysis Please compare and contrast line item budgeting and performance based budgeting. Performance based budgeting is a result oriented approach that employs the use of statements of missions, goals and objectives to explain the nature in which money is being used in the organization. Overall evaluation of such systems rests on the basis of analysis of results and the activities that have been undertaken in order to achieve those results (Morgan, 2002). Line budgeting is a simpler form of budgeting that focuses on input without much regard for the systems that are used to achieve output. It mainly focus on periodic management of costs by comparing the costs that were incurred during the past financial periods and then obtaining estimated figures for costs that will be incurred during the current period or in the future. While both method are budgeting methods, performance based budgeting focuses on results while line budgeting focuses on historical data to determine current expenditure (Morgan, 2002). Benefits and Shortfalls of each Line budgets are simple to develop and are quite straightforward in in their nature of development. They only require a line for a description of the item and another line for the exact cost of that item. It also offers flexible control over all the budgeting items because they can be classified into categories that are simpler to manage. All the typing and printing expenses can be classified under the administrative costs allowing them to be accounted in one area. It also utilizes the previous data that has been used in the organization for budgeting (Morgan, 2002). As such, its development has got a basis allowing for simple changes to be made depending on future expected outcomes. Line budgets however fails to analyze some of the expenditures and hence inefficiently allocates funds. These excess funds may be inappropriately used towards the end of the fiscal year in a spending rush aimed at preventing cost cuts to the department in the following year (Morgan, 2002). Performance based budgeting ensures that resources within the organization are utilized effectively. They allow for accountability of resources within the organization thus improving the overall performance (Morgan, 2002). However, performance based budgeting presents signification challenges in its development that may take time. Additionally, please discuss the difference between the operating portion of a budget and the capital section. Cite specific examples of what types of items are included in the two different sections of an organization’s budget. The operating portion of the budget includes all the expenses that are required for the daily activities that the company engages in (Gaughen, 2011). It includes all the sources of income that the company receives at any time. It may include consolidated income from the sale of all goods or services produced the company. The operating expenses are also included to portray the variable and fixed expenses that the company incurs. This includes the cost of printing, typing office documents, business cards and communication expenses among others. Production is also an important aspect of operations because it defines the operations of the company. Production expenses are also included in the operations section of the budget to detail the expenses incurred in production of goods and services for the organization. The capital section of a budget contains all the items that are relevant to the company in terms of acquiring capital necessary for the production of more goods and services (Gaughen, 2011). Cash inflows are often included in this section with income from asset acquisition being included here. This is to mean that if an asset that had been acquired by the company avails some income to the company then it is treated as capital. Cash outflows are also included in this section being that income is used to obtain other items that can be used for production in the company. Question 4: Assessing Organizational Performance The terrorist attacks of September 11th, 2001 exposed fundamental problems with federal bureaucracy. However, bureaucratic change is quite difficult and slow. Discuss the process of bureaucratic change, begin with the first steps and then thoroughly explicate the challenges in bureaucratic reform. Bureaucracy is a process that focuses on the planning parts of an aspect with very little focus on the actual action that is necessary to achieve success. Hence in order to reduce the amount of time spent on the planning and training processes, there are a variety of aspects that organizations should focus on to implement the necessary activities. The first step elicits a visualization of the results that are supposed to be achieved by the company (Introduction: Understanding Bureaucracy). Initial focus on processes will not enable the achievement of results because the idea will be lost in the processes making everything complicated. The quickest route to achieving these results should be identified so that appropriate measures can be put in place to achieve them. Once the results are known, it is fundamental that priorities be set to establish the most important aspects of procedure that are urgent. Time scaling activities such as paperwork and meetings should be avoided or kept to the minimum because of their obvious delay in the process to achieving results. Hence real activities like communication and design can be considered and set as priorities (Introduction: Understanding Bureaucracy). Redundant paperwork also needs to be eliminated and replaced with much more modern means of communication like computer technology (Introduction: Understanding Bureaucracy). Paperless means of communication need to be embraced in order to reduce the amount of time and resources spent in passing around pieces of paper with communication elements in them. Identification and elimination of redundant processes is also essential (Introduction: Understanding Bureaucracy). This can be considered in light of approvals that are required for the establishment of various aspects of an organization. These may be reduced or totally eliminated such that fewer steps or people are involved in the approval of certain processes or actions. This is meant to reduce the time wasted in waiting for such persons to present themselves for signing of these documents. Staff also needs to be empowered in order to ensure that bureaucracies are minimized (Introduction: Understanding Bureaucracy). This is because when several stops are set in the way of employees, they are unable to perform their duties as they should. If they need to seek approval from various authorities before they can undertake a certain action then these only make the process slower. As such, employees should be empowered to be able to make decisions whenever necessary in order to implement necessary actions in a timely manner. Decision making should also be timely and not require a lot of time to be enforced. This can only be facilitated with the presence of ready and available information hence adequate research needs to have been carried out before hand on the likely outcomes thus facilitating quick decision making processes. Action should always be the driving force to the operations of any company. As such, it should be ensured that action oriented people are included in the staff recruited for the job. It is only in that way that the real objectives of the process will be achieved. Members of such action teams should also be rewarded through various forms of reward schemes to ensure that they remain motivated and committed to their roles (Introduction: Understanding Bureaucracy). However, there are various challenges in bureaucratic reform which include the fact that the existing policies have been designed to comply with the laws and regulations of the land. It is these same policies that create these bureaucracies because of the inefficient nature in which they handle situations (Introduction: Understanding Bureaucracy). Policies take some time before they can be revised and modified, and even allowing that they are modified, they cannot go against the laws of the land making it a significant challenge to bureaucratic reform. The people who are entrusted to undertake the reform often do not receive a lot of support from the government. As result, these reform processes may also take long. Question 5: Multi-class question Contagion is a medical thriller that focuses on a public health disaster and the scientific and social response that resulted (Contagion, 2011). There are aspects of bureaucracy as decision making processes in the movie are highlighted. Dr. Cheeves of the CDC knows about the situation but is not willing to inform the public about it citing that being a holiday season; it would lead to mass panic (Contagion, 2011). Bureaucrats at the public health office are also unwilling to allocate resources that would enable a speedy investigation into the source of the problem (Contagion, 2011). They still find time to go through public health policies even though the situation is dire and in need of immediate action. It is because of the already set public health policies that they are unable to make a quick decision and avail resources for the containment of the virus. They had not been empowered enough to deal with such a situation. This is similar to the natural disaster Hurricane Katrina which hit the United States in 2005. There were also bureaucracies in the way the effects of the disaster were managed following reports of an imminent hurricane (Zimmerman, 2012). It is established that some members could not agree as to why some areas were protected and others were not, an action that led to the resignation of some members of staff. The effect of media is also established in the film portraying the various ways in which media can affect social behavior. This is seen in the case of the blogger Krumwiede who creates public awareness on the presence of a virus that is killing people (Contagion, 2011). He also goes further to introduce a cure in and advises people to purchase it. This creates public panic as people rush to obtain the cure which is a hoax. His comments on his blog and public appearance on television ascertaining his claims are part of a mass media campaign strategy that can significantly influence public behavior. Media is also portrayed during Hurricane Katrina as being fundamental to the efforts that were being put in place following the storm. Because they had lost most of the essential means of communication like cellular telephone systems and land based phones, the media became the bridge for communication between the victims and the authorities (Zimmerman, 2012). As such, they played a crucial role in mobilizing help for the country and guiding the authorities on which areas to focus assistance. Criminological theories can also be derived from this film as seen in the level of social disorder and chaos that results from the epidemic. People struggle to acquire food through stealing from shops and even from one another (Contagion, 2011). Various other responses of people to this epidemic greatly weigh on Freud's theory of crime. It is because of need that people resort to criminal activity and forget everything that they have been taught. The virus brings along with it the need for food and protection. It is because of this that people resort to stealing and the CDC resorts to quarantine that will separate the sick people form the healthy ones. Dr. Hextall also breaks the testing protocols and tries the vaccine to find out if it truly works (Contagion, 2011). This would have been a crime but because of the urgency and need to find a cure for the virus, protocol is not followed. Crime was also perceived after Hurricane Katrina that arose from the basic needs of citizens. People's need for food and water drove them to begin looting stores in the neighboring areas (Zimmerman, 2012). As such, the rate of crime rose at the time because people had no other means to obtain the necessary basic needs like food and water. Budgeting also finds its way to this film even though in a more subtle manner. The budgeting capabilities of the CDC and the government in general to cater for such epidemics is brought to light as bureaucracies arise in the appropriation of funds to cater for research for a cure. References Contagion, Directed by Steven Soderbergh (2011, USA: Warner Bros. Pictures, 2011.) DVD. Finklea, K. and Theorhary, C. (2013). Cyber Crime: Conceptual Issues for Congress and U.S Law Enforcement. Congressional Research Service. Retrieved from http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42547.pdf Gaughen, K. (2011). The Youth Guide to Budgeting. Retrieved from http://www.financeproject.org Introduction: Understanding Bureaucracy. (nd). Retrieved from http://www.utexas.edu Martinez, A. (nd). Public Relations Development Campaign Strategies for Mobilizing Florida Latinos: Political Framing of Healthcare Coverage Issue. Retrieved from http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p92477_index.html Morgan, D. (2002). Handbook on Public Budgeting. Retrieved from http://www.oup.com Ponemon Institute. (2012). 2012 Cost of Cyber Crime Study: United States. Retrieved from http://www.ponemon.org/local/upload/file/2012_US_Cost_of_Cyber_Crime_Study_FINAL6%20.pdf Robinson, M. and Last, D. (2009). A Basic Model of Performance-Based Budgeting. Retrieved from http://blog-pfm.imf.org Shapiro, M. A., & Lang, A. (1991). Making television reality: Unconscious processes in the construction of social reality. Communication Research, 18(5), 685-705 Toch, Hans. (1979). The Psychology of Crime and Criminal Justice. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Zimmerman, K. (2012). Hurricane Katrina: Facts, Damage and Aftermath. Retrieved from http://www.livescience.com/22522-hurricane-katrina-facts.html Read More