Role of Citizen Journalism in Combating Corruption in China - Literature review Example

Role of Citizen Journalism in Combating Corruption in China Literature Review This literature review gives information on the extent to which citizenjournalism has influenced reporting of corruption activities in China. According to some studies, adoption of internet technology has resulted into beneficial consequences involving timely interaction amongst general public. Consequently, citizens currently have direct access to vast sources of information accessible through online medium such as websites managed by private corporations. Citizen journalism currently experiences great improvements in which all search engines leads to crucial information concerning government operations. Such processes have made it easier for citizen journalists to disseminate information on events. In this chapter, citizen journalism and corruption are introduced and previous researches on the same subjects critically analyzed with focus on improving public experiences within political and social domains. Citizen Journalism According to Wei and Fu (2013) dealing with corruption online requires that citizens depend on social media for adequacy in revealing corruption-related issues. This attracts public attention and, therefore, encouraging anti-corruption officials take necessary measures towards stopping such activities. Citizen journalism is a term used to refer to a situation where private individuals report information that could otherwise be done by professional reporters. Such reporting of information takes different forms ranging from a podcast editorial to blogging. The information usually includes text, pictures, audio as well as video and majorly found online. The emergence of internet made possible transmission of information on global platform, therefore, enhancing development of citizen journalism whereby individuals could easily use blogs, streaming video as well as other web-related innovations. In the view of Qu et al., (2009) citizen reporters especially in developed countries and emerging markets are considered to play notable role in journalism. Social media has helped citizen reporters to easily disseminate news hence facilitating production and consumption. Citizen reporters are considered in some regions as effective supervisors on general news coverage, since they have the ability to identify inaccuracies within any news broadcast. According to Allan and Thorsen (2009) citizen journalism presents an alternative activist form of gathering and reporting news besides the usual mainstream media institutions. Citizen journalism, in this study is viewed as a potential source of first-hand information since it involves first-person reporting system where ordinary citizens temporarily adopt the role of journalists for the purposes of participating in country issues. This occurs either in times of crisis, and often spontaneously during a time of crisis, accident, tragedy or disaster when it happens presently on the scene. Further, Allan (2013) asserts that information from citizen journalism is considered the primary source to some extent, therefore, regarded as primary journalists that find and create news. Above all, citizen journalism is a new type of journalism different from tradition journalism that provides people with platform where citizen can actively participate in news making and news reporting rather than passively receiving information. Consequently, the area of citizen journalism is accessible to every citizen. According to Wu et al., (2013) internet and micro-blogging has provided a horizontal system of communications that has proved efficient for exchange and dissemination of information. This has promoted public opinion supervision which is considered one of the forces utilized in the process of exposing official corruption alongside other acts of injustice. Currently, Chinese citizens have become adept at using the law alongside new communications tools for the purposes of asserting and defending their interests against the government. However, the country has made strides in developing economic reforms as well as open-door policy that has facilitated civic-oriented agendas that restricts governments autonomy in determining policy orientation, media content as well as delivery. Xin (2010) argues that the rise in internet use has granted Chinese citizens better empowerment since they are able to set their own policy agendas within every sphere of life. Within the modern Chinese society, the official system does not give enough attention towards social, economic and political demands. Such scenario makes citizens to demand for the creation of adequate institutions that would grant them freedom to voice themselves. Consequently, engagement through internet and social media such as blogs and micro-blogs presents citizens with opportunity to better articulate policy interests while setting their own agenda. Such medium helps citizens to express their grievances and at the same time, debate public policies allowing them to organize themselves into social movements capable of mounting collective action against any unwanted behavior such as corruption (Lavrusik, 2010). Different digital tools such as mobile phone, social networking and individual websites has greatly encouraged citizen journalism since they guarantee citizens with wide platforms where they can share information. The use of digital medium tools such as emails, videos, online photos as well as cell-phone text messages are utilized by the general public to document day-to-day events. Currently, with the invention of micro-blog, Twitter and Facebook, ordinary citizens are likely to share some opinions or photos on corrupt activities and other acts of injustice within government processes. This study asserts to the fact that development of citizen journalism has played a more significant role in reporting transparent information on emergency or crisis events. During 1990s, historical assessments of online media provided the significance of reporting crisis events through transparent medium, such cases was sparked by a renegade cyber-journalists (Allan and Thorsen 2009). According to Allan and Thorsen (2009) citizen journalism has become one of the preferred media through which information is relayed. Hachten and Scotton (2007) concurs with the sentiment by asserting that exploration of citizen journalism by scholars usually focuses on important public events such as Mumbai terrorist attack, Indian Ocean tsunami, 7/7 London riots and University of Virginia shooting where citizen played significant role as journalists in reporting the events. According to Clarke and Bromley (2012) the internet grants citizen an access to air their opinions that ultimately facilitates democracy within the society. Through utilization of Facebook, Twitter, Blogs and some other online platforms citizens have the ability of challenging some arguments as well as making comments on political and social issues, therefore, filling some gaps with new investigations. In this case, it is possible for citizens to debate, question and further develop new findings on crucial issues (Clarke and Bromley, 2012). Citizen Journalism in China China has experienced rapid growth in the past 30 years making the country one of the interesting destinations for many. According to Bei, (2013) the invention of Web 2.0 has made China to gradually open to the world owing to its large population that is reported to be larger than any country in the world. This has made China to have largest percentage of online population with highest number of emerging citizen journalists. The group of citizen journalist has used their social tools to war against the current political, economic as well as attempt to establish an authoritarian society. There exist different internet-based social services such as Weibo, Wechat, Tianya amongst others that play important role in social networking alongside sharing information on web content. There are landmark events that led to establishment of citizen journalism in China such as the 2007 event concerning “the most awesome nailhouse” that led to emergence of amateur citizen journalists (Keane, 2012). Subsequently, the Sisuan Earthquake that occurred in Wenchuan in the year 2008 reinforced the idea on citizen journalism. The events facilitated the creation of other new media social tools such as Weibo and Wechat that provided citizen journalists with readily available powerful platform. This expanded the voice of public as well as citizen groups making citizen journalists in China to maintain their own rights and interests, making the invention one of the most important moves in human history (Xin, 2010). There are several social media sites that provide citizens with platform for journalism, for instance, WeChat which is a mobile text and voice messaging service in China provides a good platform for online citizen journalism since it allows subscribers to post articles regarding current events (Bei, 2013)). Majority of the accounts on WeChat provides users with opportunity of showcasing personal writing style as well as opinions. Some of the accounts have received sponsorship from business organizations making the accounts to be on the verge of commercialization. According to statistics provided by Chinese bureau of statistics there has been an increase in the news-related accounts in 2012 recording a total of 300 million users. Another example is the Bulletin Board System (BBS) that attracts more than one million viewers on a daily basis. The invention of internet tools comprising of Twitter-like micro-blogging service such as Weibo in China has facilitated dissemination of information concerning societal issues within China (Lee, 2012). The popularity of Weibo grew after the 2009 incident where government of China blocked internationally popular media such as Twitter and Facebook. This provided the local community with freedom of expression leading to intense pressure on authorities especially regarding accountability. The site has been empowered by microblogs of approximately 88% of China’s internet users making it easy investigations on societal conflicts and corrupt officials. The current growth of tech-savvy and aggressive users of Weibo from urban Chinese and journalists scramble for information control, therefore, performing crucial role that is necessary for transforming China into an open society (Lu & Wertime, 2013). According to Li (2010) citizen journalism has the capability of discussing crucial issues that triggers public debates on primary issues. On the other hand mainstream media relies on their own authoritative character whereby they question the truth through personal interviews. However, for transparency purposes citizen journalism keep following issues on disseminating authoritative information given through mainstream media. Consequently, cooperation between mainstream and citizen journalism can lead to production of reliable information. However, Xin (2010) regards such cooperation as means of promoting democracy since citizen journalism together with mainstream journalism, creates some level of difficulty for the ruling party CPP to efficiently control online information. Additionally, combination of the two media sources of information in dealing with corruption cannot be separated from the governmental support. This is since, the reported corruption cases are ultimately investigated or punished by government-linked anti-corruption bodies, and therefore, citizen journalism depends heavily on government officials in alleviating corruption (Wei and Fu.2013) Impact of Corruption in China According to Xiao (2012) and Yu (2009), research by theorists has explained causes of corruption and its impact through economic, political as well as cultural factors. There exists an empirical study with detailed information on causes of corruption that includes effects on GDP levels, existing legal systems, government regulations and poverty levels (Zhang and Stening, 2009). According to Zhang (2011), corruption is a vice that discourages private investment that leads to diminishing economic growth since it limits development through Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). However, increased access to information has led to effective methods involved in combating corruption. According to Zhang (2012) corruption has more devastating effects compared to legal taxes on economic activities since the aspect on corruption directly affects real resources while evading detection. Works by Zheng (2008) reveals different types of corruption within government which includes; grand corruption amongst government officials, bureaucratic corruption between appointed government officials and the general public and legislative corruption. According to Howard and Silvio (2004) various political institutions such as parliamentary systems and freedom of the press provides crucial elements in the determination of the extent to which corrupt activities thrive within a nation. On the same note,  Andras (2003) asserts that countries that indulge masculine cultures alongside restricted economic freedom usually experience high cases of corruption. However, the level of trust and religiosity may to some extent influence the culture within the society that ultimately determines levels of corruption. According to  Schudson (2004), lack of transparency in processes, operations as well as country laws encourages spread of corruption related activities. The overall perception from this study is on the fact that corruption is a negative force that destroys a country’s ability to thrive within the global economy (Bardhan, 1997). Cases on rising inequalities as well as pervasive corruption amongst government officials have led towards erosion of public trust with Chinese government. Such cases have led to detrimental effects on the image of CCP, therefore, interfering with economic and sociopolitical stability. The issues of rampant corruption are high in China but usually receive inadequate reporting or at times not reported at all through official press or mainstream media due to political influence. Official sources do not give firsthand release of news about corruption, hence giving alternative news medium such as cyberspace an upper hand as watchdog capable of monitoring and publicizing corruption. The increase in use of internet in China has made it possible reporting of mass incidents and corruption cases which could have otherwise been simply dismissed. According to McNair (1999), there is resultant claim for Chinese uniqueness in dealing with media-related issues concerning political and economic guidance amongst the ‘fifth generation’ within the current ruling party CPP. The different concerned leaders usually draw much power from intensive authority created through communist regime. Various shifts experienced due to media shift within the political arena including growing assertiveness were as a result of opposition. This led to disruption on several strategic representations which signified settled democracy. There are increased experiences on clear-cut division of labor within government institutions that lead towards diplomatic interactions between public and institutions. The effectiveness of corruption prevention programs as introduced by the government through learning and economic institutions largely depend on political policies. In the process of dealing with corruption related issues, Li et al., (2014) argues that citizen journalism has its own limits in terms of the power to persecute culprits from government institutions. Therefore, the possibility of unsatisfied end results is high due to complications in network system dealing with anti-corruption after the whistle blowing. According to Wei and Fu (2013) the efficiency of network system dealing with anti-corruption is not reliable, since grand corruption cases are always revealed by governmental anti-corruption organizations, therefore considered irrelevant to the Internet system. In this case, no matter how citizen journalism uses the internet to crack down corruptions, citizen journalism cannot immediately achieve its goals without the helping hand of official government institutions. Combating Corruption through Information Technology The existence of an excellent technological environment in China has granted citizen journalism movement a platform for further development. From the view of political science and economics literature, information transparency is fundamental in reducing cases on corruption within national jurisdictions (Bellver and Kaufmann, 2005). However, internet has been lately utilized as one of the tools for transparency that provides platform for different opinions concerning social and political systems of governance. The ability to access information through internet assists in creation of a more transparent society where citizens are capable of obtaining and commenting on government regulations as well as business practices. In this case, transparency is used to refer to easy access to authentic reliable information regarding processes to all relevant stakeholders (Langfitt, 2012). Transparency has been considered over the decades as a crucial tool for governance since it prompts acts of integrity amongst public officials. The tool assists in promoting social norms by improving the level of trust amongst stakeholders. According to Brunetti and Weder (2003) existence of press freedom correlates to lower corruption levels. This is since transparency is considered to have the ability of increasing probability of detection making it easier to identify perpetrators. Consequently, transparency has indirect influence on law enforcement processes where there is enough room for consolidating proof concerning cases on corruption. According to Kolstad et al., (2008) scarcity of information gives room for corrupt officials to have an upper hand, therefore, leading to demands for bribes. However, availability of information enables citizen journalists to critically check the powers of bureaucrats and in the process prevent cases on abuses within the society. Additionally, acts of transparency reinforces behavior and character, therefore, influencing decision making processes that ultimately increases efficiency within any economy. Internet has significantly increased access to information that is necessary for mitigating acts of corruption. The use of internet has enabled reduction in costs associated with retrieval of information, therefore, easy dissemination of information leading to promotion of transparency. According to Schroth and Sharma (2003) there is possibility of reducing corruption through combination of technology and law since there is ready access of information regarding corrupt practices through internet. The unique characteristic of internet as a shared platform enables citizen journalists to contribute as government watchdog. Citizens have the ability of sharing and providing information concerning government rules, processes as well as rights. This makes it difficult for the government to embezzle public funds through corrupt activities due to the fear of consequences. Several countries including China have adopted the use of internet as a tool for fighting corruption. According to research done by Bertot et al. (2010) 91% of nations gave their contacts to citizens for the purposes of alerting the governments concerning corrupt activities, subsequently, 29% of nations embraces the application of online tools for the purposes of monitoring fraudulent and corrupt activities. This has seen the development of e-government that provides a platform for anti-corruption initiatives through internet technology. However, there are some governments that have been identified with internet restrictions such as Nepal, Myanmar and China. This is enabled through partial internet filtering through blocking of IP technique. For instance, China considered employing IP blocking for the purposes of restricting access to different IP addresses used in the international platform. This therefore enabled filtering of information from internet irrespective of the ISP at local level (Deibert et al., 2008). Most of the recent political movements are associated with information disseminated by citizen journalists through the internet by use of Twitter and Facebook tools (Bertot et al., 2010). The presence of watchdog press such as citizen journalists ensures that individuals and institutions that serve the public maintain transparency and accountability within the offices they hold. This qualifies the fact that citizen vigilance provides one of the keys to good governance. In this case, both the constitutional and legal rights regarding access to information grant citizen journalists the rights and tools necessary to monitor the government. The current checks and balances inherent within legal system legitimize journalistic inquiry that represents broader framework towards government accountability towards the public. However, citizen and investigative journalism has taken root in non-democracy states like China where media freedoms are limited (Bertot et al., 2010). Currently, citizen journalism in China is thriving despite tight government controls over official media alongside censorship system that blocks media content as previously indicated in this literature review. Research shows that presently, there exists a lot of motivation concerning the fight against corruption. Citizen journalists have been utilizing public supervision system as a tool to force some government departments into probing corrupt office bearers. Such force against corruption is attributed to citizens’ hardwork through the internet. The major qualifications required for citizen journalists are ability to access internet services for the purposes of gathering editing and disseminating news (Bertot et al., 2010). The use of blogging, BBS forums as well as micro-blogging services has made it easy for ordinary people in China to take the news and different information systems in their own hands, therefore, expanding the number of Chinese internet users. The presence of Chinese tight censorship controls leads individuals as well as grass-root activists towards seeking alternative means where they could make information public. This has led towards citizens avoiding state-controlled official media system. Wood, (2012) posits that the Chinese government’s initiative on using filter model of computer based communications is focused on important elements of computer based communication that limits social communication owing to the lack of essential non-verbal features. The case leads to communication experience that is highly reduced based on feeling of anonymity due to reduction in the use of social cues. The consequence is that all the people involved tend to exhibit behaviors that are less socially regulated than usual (Mitomo, & Kim, 2006). Importance of Citizen Journalism and Internet in China Recent occurrence of events and incidents such as The Wukan and Shifang incidents in 2012, aroused strong sense of public concern on merits and governance. Such incidents have intensified collective anxiety as well as public pressure on government officials. Citizen journalists are seen to be more willing in articulation of interests and concerns that attracts government’s attention, therefore, prompting timely response to citizen opinions in the process policy implementation. The rise in internet use has made Chinese citizens to be vigilant and therefore never accepting government agendas before scrutiny. In this case, the Chinese government has been very keen on popular interests and agendas for fear of forceful responses through social media that has allowed ordinary people policy platform compared to traditional media. The invention of information communication technology has allowed general public to vent their grievances and feelings and thereby capable of organizing themselves for the purposes of demanding for their rights (Bei, 2013). In the midst of muzzled media within China, the growth of information technology has led to expanding number of citizen journalists who play significant role in China’s social and political life. The citizen journalists have virtually opened new platform used for inquiry in almost every aspect of Chinese society (King et al., 2012). This is since citizen journalists are good at relaying issues being underreported or wrong information given by mainstream media through cyber postings on personal blogs or websites. Most Chinese bloggers have provided an alternative voice for China’s disadvantaged through news and commentaries that would have otherwise been left unreported. Moreover, the citizen journalists have broken through the Golden Shield Project of China by broadcasting information on despair within the society, cases on corruption as well as socioeconomic injustices. Furthermore, citizen journalism influenced the rise in Chinese wei-quan movement. In this case, the civic journalists have been able to challenge government’s authoritative viewpoints on crucial matters that are of public interest, therefore, granting the needed freedom to the media sector. This has enabled citizen journalists and bloggers to raise public awareness on cases that require justice such as corruption and unlawful processes. Chasing up government officials and party leaders on crucial matters have been made possible through internet, therefore, making them accountable and responsive to citizens through online opinions (Keane, 2012). Growth that has been experienced within the market economy as well as consumer society has led to increased demands in high living standards and environmental improvement. Despite the Chinese government implementing anti-corruption systems as well as improving economic and social welfare of citizens, there still exist numerous cases on lack of transparency. This is seen in cases where public has been denied the right on full participation, freedom of speech and serving as alternative watchdog on government policies. Consequently, there has been rise in mass incidents organized by ordinary people such as popular bloggers and wei-quan activists that shows great awakening on people’s consciousness towards their rights. Keane, (2012) argues that the rise in citizen journalism has enabled empowerment of ordinary citizens, whereby they are capable of taking advantage of ICT to air their concerns through public debates. Currently, ordinary citizens are also able to courageously protect their interests through online petitions and organizing public demonstrations as well as filing judicial petitions. The Chinese government understands the role of citizen journalists in creating pressure through online contributions and opinions that goes beyond official bottom lines. The online platform has provided space where people release their frustrations on government systems, therefore, pressurizing government effectiveness. The Chinese authoritarian political system is incapable of managing the current social anxiety and unrest through social media. This has made local government officials to stage crackdown on social movements alleging on the fact that such movements presents a threat to social stability, therefore, hindering economic growth (Keane, 2012). Citizen journalism and the rise in wei-quan movement have influenced civil engagement as well as improvements within the middle-class. Citizen journalism contributes significantly towards development by acting as the foundation for a healthy civil society. The wei-quan movement was facilitated by the unprecedented access to multiple sources of information, despite, the fact that Chinese authorities still have some restrictions on Net-savvy use. In this case, the government has considered shaping online environment to avoid existence of incitement towards officials. The Chinese government tends to combat internet activities through implementation of what is referred to as Great Firewall of China, cyber regulations as well as promotion of self-censorship amongst citizen journalists that ensures no breach of political foundation. The use of ICTs enables Chinese citizens to speak and engage in a more free horizontal communication amongst themselves, therefore, creating more favorable social conditions. At the same time, it is important to note in accordance with King et al., (2012) the impossibility of transforming civil society to an authoritarian political wing. However, despite the Chinese government flexing muscles to stifle civil society, the new media carries the capacity required to bolster citizen consciousness concerning rights to protection. This is achieved through facilitation of civil discussion on public awareness regarding social justice and citizen rights. The rising expectations from the public on significant improvement within government operations require that the government not only address their issues through mass media but also take appropriate actions. Chinese citizens also demand existence of adequate channels that enables proactive articulation of their demands. Such pressure arising from citizen journalism facilitates reinforcement of favorable social practices hence elimination of such vices as corruption. Citizen journalism utilizes media technologies where individual and group communications is supported over wide geographical area in time and space. According to Cabral (2008) the use of media technologies is both detrimental and beneficial to some individuals based on the existing relationship. The streaming of information especially through the internet has significant effects on human interactions and relationships. However, the disadvantage lies on the over-reliance that has made citizens heavily depend on them thereby affecting their social interactions. Equally, the social media presents opportunities fashioned towards provision of relevant information. For instance, social networking sites expands the platform for relationships sought by individuals and groups particularly on major operations within national and international platform. Inventions of such media technologies have facilitated removal of existing barriers within social domain, therefore encouraging cases on self-disclosure (Nelson, 2012). Influence of Media technology on Citizen Journalism Utilization of internet has been discovered to have immense power especially in influencing and shaping public opinion concerning current matters. Bargh, & McKenna, (2004) asserts on the fact that increased use of internet have interfered with relationships because of the vast alterations within the tools used in maintaining peer-to-peer connections. In this case, citizen journalism is identified to cause transformation in the ways individuals communicate since it facilitates the transformation and enhancement of interactive communication. The technological developments that are constantly being adopted is either interpreted based on either positive or negative impact towards human relationships. People use the social media for different reasons of which some are motivated to use the system for surveillance, companionship, entertainment, identity or as an escape mechanism. In many instances there are significant changes to processes that use instant messaging as a replacement for face-to-face communication. According to technology experts the use of social networks by individuals in major social interactions provides means through which some relieve anxieties experienced in different life domains. For example, the ambiguity of social media system assists citizens in escaping scrutiny, therefore, facilitating social acceptability based on individual’s identity. According to Wu (2003) citizens utilize media technologies to fulfill the purposes of social networking and at the same time reinforcing other ties with important government bodies. In such cases, heavy users of the internet utilize the technology in countering social vices within institutions. Others utilize the internet to compensate for their insecurity while some use the internet for the purposes of reinforcing relationships that are otherwise significant in their daily operations. The internet technology is thought to have significantly lowered the quality of communication within the media domain owing to prevalence of consumer-related information that are inaccurate and brief messaging considered to be superficial. One of the arguments within the field is based on the fact that brief blogs are great enablers of interpersonal communication amongst netizens. There is a widespread adoption level of internet technology such as mobile and their possession of various tools of communication. However, research by Wu (2003) shows that internet tools as well as mobile devices are internet-related and increasingly becoming an inseparable part of the lives of Chinese citizens. The main advantages of using internet over other communication devices is that its mobile, portable and easily accessible thus are restricted by neither time nor place. Some of the factors that have fuelled the rapid adoption of mobile communication especially by young users is a relatively low cost that is incurred in sending text messages as compared to other communication mediums. Mobile messaging also allows users to send brief, concise and precise information that would traditionally consider to not be important enough to warrant a call or send an e-mail. Walther, (2011) asserts that citizen journalism has driven internet users towards becoming active participants within the country’s social and political process. In most cases, media digital technologies enables users to post significant amount of information concerning issues on corruption and other social concerns that ultimately shape the thinking of the audience. Different cases on intimate self disclosures prove vital in assisting the affected institutions as compared to face-to-face communication utilized by mainstream media. Posting of an institution’s profile in the social media provides significant advantages based on public concept and opinion. This may assist such institution in attracting potential investors. Disclosure done by citizen journalists concerning corrupt activities assists officials in the development of their self-concept through consolidation of feedback from critics. In this case, such feedback that individuals receive from critics strengthens existing relationships and characters. At the same time, social support received from certain acts of self-disclosures assists the institutions in striving to maintain their integrity within the public and private areas of operations (Lewis, 2012). The system is significant in ensuring accountability hence improve the quality of systems and processes. Moreover, positive image portrayed by people’s perception is enhanced by the favorable comments that are received from other users on opinion blogs. 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Technological Empowerment: the Internet, State, and Society in China. Stanford University Press. Read More