Models and Principles of Communication - Research Paper Example

COMMUNICATIONS---RESEARCH PAPER INTRODUCTION: It has often been argued that humans are social animals, who remain in constant contact with one another by exchanging their thoughts and floating their plans in a comprehensive and refined way, so that the others could clearly understand the real motive behind the communication. Hence, communication maintains a highly imperative place in people’s individual and collective life, without which it is impossible to enter into different processes of social interaction and corporate liabilities. The term communication simply defines the transmission of ideas, views and information through words, gestures, signals and body language between two or more persons for the accomplishment of some task or fulfillment of some desires. Communication is the art and technique of using words effectively to impart information or ideas. (answer.com) Bill Gates has also declared floating of thoughts and information as very essential matter for the success of commercial activities as well as winning the distinguished place in the world. The most meaningful way to differentiate your company from your competitor, the best way to put distance between you and the crowd, is to do an outstanding job with information. How you gather, manage, and use information will determine whether you win or loose. (Gates, 1999: 1) MODELS OF COMMUNICATION: Various theories have been articulated and researches have been conducted in order to elaborate the core of the term communication, as well as the methods, sources and processes of human communication, which could be discussed as under: Renowned Greek philosopher Aristotle has also presented his Communication Model of Proof, according to which a speaker discovers rational, emotional and ethical proofs while making his communication with the audience. (Ehninger et al: retrieved from shkaminski.com) In addition, Aristotle submits, an effective and comprehensive communication is always made through a clear and concise mode, where the speaker reflects and expresses his ideas in such an effective and eloquent way that could influence the listeners or audience. Linear Model of Communication: Introduced by Harold Laswell in 1948, linear model of communication has been considered as one of the very initial models that have described the concepts of source, message and receiver within a communication process. According to the linear model, communication is a linear or one way process in which one person acts on another person. Laswell’s model is viewed as the verbal one that contained five questions in it including who is the speaker, what he aims to state, what is the channel he has applied, to who he is making communication, and which is the effect that urged him say something. (Zaidi, 2007: 31) All these questions, above-mentioned, signify the earliest views on the performance of communication. The model experienced an immediate review by the contemporary theorists. Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver introduced the concept of noise, which they regarded as anything that would cause a loss of information or distraction between the source to the receiver, as well as feedback, which simply put are they verbal and nonverbal signals that are sent to the source to indicate whether the message has been received and/or understood. (Tirpak, 2008: 3) The inclusion of the concept of noise, by Shannon and Weaver, as the distracter during communication proved a significant improvement of Laswell theory of linear model. Interactive Model of Communication: Interactive model of communication lays stress upon the two-way communication process between the individuals. It vehemently declares that when an individual conveys his message or idea to the other as the information flow, it certainly effects the other i.e. receiver, who also conveys his response in one way or the other. As soon as the theorists realized the very fact that the audience or listeners surely respond to the words, gestures or action of the speaker, they included this characteristic of communication in the theoretical framework. They state feedback as the response to a message, and consequently interactive model got its place. Wilbur Schramm (1955) articulated interactive model, where he submits that the feedback may be in the form of both verbal and non-verbal response from the receiver. Schramm emphasized that encoding and decoding roles are performed by both the sender and the receiver. (Anderson, 2008: 11) Interactive model serves as the reaction of the linear model that concentrates upon one-way communication, negating the impressions and influence of the communication on the recipient. The major shortcoming of the linear model was that they portrayed communication as flowing in only one direction—i.e. from sender to the receiver, and does not explain the role of the receiver at all. (Awan, 2008: 261) Schramm pointed out the very reality that communicators create and interpret messages within personal field of experience, according to which the more communicators’ field of experience overlap, the better they better the opportunity they possess in comprehending the messages from each other. For example, one conceals a trivial belonging of another, which may create the feelings of misunderstanding in the other mind i.e. lest the first one has stolen the thing or aims to tease him etc. Hence, both sender and receiver make up the whole communication process through message and feedback of the message. Transactional Model of Communication: Transactional model of communication does not specify the distinguished roles of sender and receiver between the individuals while making communication; nor it applies the term source in such a way as prescribed by the interactive model. On the contrary, the model looks for the transition of roles the individuals play without determining the turns at all. In simple words, transactional theory does not see eye to eye with the interactive model’s notion of stating one person as sender and the other as receiver. In a communication process, the transactional theory argues, both the communicators can send and receive messages; hence both the persons are senders as well as receivers. It is therefore, communication is a two-way and simultaneous process, according to transactional perspective. In the Dynamic Circle feedback is seen as two-way and simultaneous; neither communicator has to wait for their message to be decoded and a new message to be encoded to act upon the feedback. (Tirpak, 2008: 6) Thus, the position of sender and receiver observe transaction in their fold. PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION: Communication models have determined the direction of the subject under study, according to which communication is a two-way process, where messages and thoughts are exchanged and conveyed. Since it is a two-way process, the speaker or sender must have knowledge of the listeners, audience or receivers. The scholars have established seven principles of communication necessary for entering into as well as completing the communication process, which are as under: 1. Knowledge of Audience: Since an effective communication always requires the audience, a speaker must have knowledge regarding the nature and characteristics of the audience in order to convey his message in an appropriate way. Delivering of some words or speech cannot be decaled as the valid form of communication. Rather, the message must be conveyed to the listeners, which looks for the comprehensive knowledge of the audience. For example, a parliamentarian must have knowledge while briefing his economic plan in the presence of the experts, so that the minute details of the topic could be briefed with care regarding facts and figures. 2. Knowledge of the Purpose: The listeners should have acquaintance with the purpose behind the words of the delivered by the sender or speaker. Mere hearing some sentences without focusing on the motive behind them is strictly against the principles of communication. For example, if an orator is describing the utility of a specific product, it should be kept in mind that the speaker may be a salesman, who is eager to sell his goods. 3. Acquaintance with the Topic: It is an essential principle of a valid communication that both the sender and the receiver have complete awareness about the topic under which the details are being transferred. Without having any knowledge of the title or topic, it is not easy to communicate and respond to one another in an apposite manner. For example, if a channel is displaying the social and economic losses in the aftermath of Katrina Hurricane, there could be some proposals of raising the price of oil products etc. 4. Anticipation of Objections: Another valid principle of communication is this that the individuals must be well alert regarding the objections and opposition raised by the others during the communication process, so that the information can not only be conveyed to them, but also the listeners could be made familiar with the contents of the whole matter under discussion. In addition, all the points could be explained in quite an appropriate manner for the convenience and comprehension of others. Taking an example of the new trade policy announced by the secretary of state, both parliamentarians and journalists could point out the flaws, which should be properly handled with. 5. Credibility of the Audience: Trust and faith of the listeners is an essential principle of communication. If the audience have no trust in the words or actions delivered or performed by the sender, it would not be possible to convince or motivate them regarding some certain activities. Taking an illustration of a priest, if he does not observe any moral values in his everyday life, his sermons will have no effect upon the listeners. ROLE OF SELF AND PERCEPTION IN COMMUNICATION The concept of self is perhaps on of the most fascinating, interesting and aptly discussed topic in the disciplines of psychology, philosophy, logic, social psychology and mass communication. It plays a very dynamic part while performing various obligations and activities as well as during the individuals’ interaction with his environment. William James (1890) recognized that humans have the capacity to view themselves as objects and to develop self-feelings and attitudes towards themselves. (Turner, 1978: 312-313) C. H. Cooley, on the other hand, is the process by which individuals see themselves as objects, along with other objects in their environment. (Ritzer, 1988: 119) It is the concept of self actualization that helps the individuals perceive about themselves, the world around them as well as social environment in which they receive education, training and socialization process. The concept of self comes from the feelings of attachment and love for the individuals’ own family, community, social class, city, race, ethnic group, religious set of belief and others. It is therefore, perception of oneself and the outer world contains important place in communication with others. Traditionally, the concept of self has been emphasized for three reasons. First, our awareness of ourselves represents an important aspect of our phenomenological or subjective experience. Second, researches suggest that how we feel about ourselves influences our behavior in many situations. Third, the concept of the self is used to express the organized, integrated aspects of human personality functioning. (Pervin, 1980: 17) The ability of perceiving one’s self determines the mode and methods of making communication with other members of society. Since communication is a two-way process, the individuals develop relationship with others while keeping in mind their self and the power of perceiving the situation on the basis of self identification. G. H. Mead is of the opinion that the development of self directly depends upon personal experiences. (Macionis, 2007: 124) These personal experiences pave the way towards conveying one’s messages to others on the foundations of the expectations an individual has developed in his mind while communicating with others. Perception is the mirror that reflects the status and role of self to other individuals and vice versa. Whenever an individual has to enter into interaction with the outer world, he perceives his relation with the other, and on the basis of that perception he sends and receives messages. The patterns of social interaction and communication vary from person to person and from one situation to another. A child also learns how to act and react at some specific situation from other individuals, and comes to know how to behave with the people in his surrounding. As man’s behavior is learned one, and he performs differently at different occasions as well as while interacting with different communities and groups, his behavior also changes time and again during the fulfillment of his obligations. Further, man comes across different institutions and socioeconomic organizations during the course of life, all of which establish divergent patterns of behavior and communication as well. For example, a police officer communicates with the culprit and the victim in different tone and mode, though the situation is one and the same. Similarly, man communicates with the same person quite differently at the eve of marriage ceremony and funeral services. Hence, self obtains central role in the communication process. FIVE STAGES AND TYPES OF LISTENING In order to comprehend and understand the listening process, it will be quite appropriate to learn the stages of listening. Theorists identify five stages of listening, which are essential for an effective communication, which are as under: 1. Hearing: Hearing is the very first stage of understanding the process of listening. It focuses on the receiving of words into the ears in a clear and uninterrupted mode. Hearing involves the detection and sensing of sounds so that different messages could be listened to differently. In other words, it is a mechanical response to a specific sound. 2. Attending and discrimination of Sounds: The second stage of listening focuses on making distinction between various types of sound. The discrimination is generally made on the basis of long and short sounds, sonorous and meek sounds, happy and sad sounds, clear and interrupted sounds and single and repeated sounds etc. Understanding of tone, accent, variation and interruption of different sounds is very essential in respect of comprehending a message and completing the listening process. 3. Identification of Sounds: Identification of various sounds is the third stage of listening, which is supportive for perceiving and understanding the message in an accurate way. Man, with the help of his memory and understanding, perceives the sound and reacts accordingly within a jiffy whether the voice is a male one or the female one, and age, tone and meaning of the sound are also received by identifying the sound. 4. Responding: Responding is the fourth stage of listening that reflects the comprehension of the message and proper and adequate reply to it accordingly. Responding to a message is sound proof of the understanding a sound and meanings behind it. 5. Recalling: Recalling is the final stage in the listening process. Recalling and remembering helps the listener immediately recognize the sound he has heard before. Familiar expressions, joyous and gloomy tones and voices can be analyzed with the help of recalling. FUNCTIONS OF VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL MESSAGES Messages are both verbal and non-verbal ones. Verbal messages are those messages that can be sent and received in words and digits, whereas non verbal messages include gestures, body language, expressions, images and pictures. Austin has identified six verbal functions including performative, expressive, impressive, constitutive, directives and memory. (Retrieved from csus.edu) Performative messages are those words that are applied in ceremonies, functions and formal meetings and gatherings, while expressive words lay stress upon giving vent to personal feelings, emotions, ideas and thoughtfulness. In the same way, impressive messages focus on instigating and urging behavior in both pleasant and unpleasant way. Constitutive messages possess verboseness and refined ness in them; idioms, phrases, maxims and citations are included in it. Similarly, directives are the messages which reveal directions of performance i.e. orders, instructions, requests and pardons etc. Memory is the sixth function of verbal messages and constitutes proverbs, verses and sayings that could be preserved in one’s memory. On the other hand, functions of non-verbal messages include touching, eye behavior, gestures, images, pictures, facial expressions, body language and others. Gazing of eyes, smiles, cries, frown, scowl, displeasure and others are the non verbal reflections of messages. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF SMALL GROUPS Humans are social animals and remain in constant interaction with other individuals, which gives birth to the formation of groups, clans, communities, cultures and societies. Two or more persons form a group, which could expand up to unlimited number of people. Groups are formed for performing some activity or for the fulfillment of some purpose. Such a purpose can be both positive and negative one. Since groups are formed for the performance of an action, there is a common share and motive for all the members of group. A small group generally consists of ten persons or fewer than ten. The positive characteristics of small groups include love, sacrifice, co-operation, compromise, sympathetic attitude, kindness and care. Such groups are formed for the fulfillment of basic human needs like food, clothing, residence, shelter, protection, emotional support, recreation, enjoyment, love-making, thrill, co-operation, compromise, speeches, debates, discussions keeping in mind the needs and requirements of every member. The members of small groups communicate with one another and have sympathy and care for all. Family, peer group, classmates, sports-teams and board of directors are different forms of small groups. The members of such type of groups provide their utmost help to other members of their groups even surrendering their personal sacrifices. On the other hand, some small groups are formed for negative and destructive purposes or to display their rivalries for each other. Since the motive behind their gathering is negative one, they keep united until the purpose and objective is achieved. Such characteristics are usually various forms of protest against authorities like procession, strike, long-march and demonstration etc. In addition, some of the functions are completely destructive ones in nature, which have no creativity at all. The examples of such actions are assaults, gambling, sexual harassment, rape, burglary, theft, murder and other criminal activities. The feelings of hatred, disagreement, malice, grudge, antipathy, greed, lust, jealousy, conflict, competition and annoyance are the negative characteristics of such groups. DIFFERENT PATTERNS OF AN ORGANIZATION FOR AN INFORMATIVE SPEECH The link between clear, logical organization and effective communication is powerful, both for the "sender" and the "receiver." (Quoted in washington.edu) An informative speech requires well organized patterns to communicate the message in a powerful and impressive way. There are five patterns of organization for a speech, which can be discussed as below: 1. Chronological/Sequential: Chronological patterns of an informative speech narrate the historical background of an event, an incident or a situation from its origin to the present or latest development. For example, the informative speech on airplane describes the historical background when man first tried to fly in the air through balloons. It also described all the efforts made during the course of time including the efforts of Wright brothers and others towards this direction. In the end, this type of speech sums up by providing the readers or listeners with the contemporary situation, where an experience of flying an airplane with coconut oil as fuel has been made by Sir Richard Branson of the Virgin Atlantic in the UK. 2. Spatial: Spatial pattern of speech looks for the explanation of various departments or parts of an organic or a social structure with special concentration on its functions or characteristics. For example, a comparative study of crime rate in the USA and the UK expresses the root cause of the crime specifying the most involved and mostly victimized community and stratum of society and the reasons behind that all. Spatial speech starts from the root to the consequence of such an event of activity. 3. Causal: This type of informative speech takes one topic as cause and the other as its outcome. The comparison between the two provides the readers with an eloquent format of cause and effect in a causal form of speech. For example, while discovering the price hike in different countries of the world, it becomes evident that war and tensions have paved the way towards uncertainty and price hike. 4. Problem/Solution: Problem/solution form of speech lays stress upon defining the nature, severity and scope of a problem, and then offer a solid range of different solutions for that all. For example, high rate of interest demanded and applied by the banks discourages the plans of borrowers to seek loans from them, but it did not bring their financial worries to an end. The solution of this problem may be the seeking support from the NGOs and welfare organizations for temporary basis. In addition, cutting the cot according to the cloth is another solution of this problem. 5. Topical/Categorical: Topical or categorical informative speech simply defines various aspects of one single topic, with elaboration of departmental, regional, social, economic, geographic and other aspects without making any comparison with other set ups at all. For example, while specifying the culture of a society, ethnic differences and demographical statistics could be viewed. USE OF APPEALS IN A PERSUASIVE SPEECH A persuasive speech is the form of speech that expresses an idea or a view-point in a convincing and arguing manner. It contains the following elements: A rhetorical question A startling statement A quotation An illustration or story A reference to the subject A reference to the occasion (Retrieved from studyguide.org) Since the persuasive speech possesses commanding elements in it, it also makes appeals in a dignified manner. It does not make any requests in a humiliating way; rather, it presents its appeal like a competent lawyer presents the case of his client in a powerful and sonorous manner, where the element of persuading the authorities regarding giving and acknowledging of the rights exists in a highly convincing way. There are many types of a persuasive speech, where the appeals of various kinds are made. These appeals may be attributed to general public en mass, or specific to a particular person, authority, group, audience or community. There must be a sound and valid reasoning behind such appeals. In addition, the appellant must be a responsible and reliable person; otherwise, no one will pay any heed to his words and arguments. Moreover, thesis statement of the appeal must be strong, practicable and in the reach of the persons to which the appeal is being made. REFERENCES: 1. Anderson, Molly. Communication Theory 2008 11 (Quoted in act.uwstout.edu/CBL/CommunicationTheory.ppt) 2. Awan, Farrukh Ahmad. Mass Communication Caravan Book House Urdu Bazaar Lahore. 261-266 3. Gates, Bill. Business @ the Speed of Thought. Using a Digital Nervous System. Warner Books, USA. 1999 1 4. Macionis, John J. Sociology. Eleventh Edition. Pearson Prentice Hall Inc. 2007 124 5. Pervin, Lawrence A. Personality: Theory, Assessment and Research. Third Edition John Wiley & Sons Inc New York 1980 17 6. Ritzer, George. Sociological Theory, 3rd Edition McGraw-Hill NY 1988 119-121 7. Tirpak, Professor Philip C. Interpersonal Communication 2008 3 (Retrieved from communicationnow.org) 8. Turner, Jonathan H. The Structure of Sociological Theory. The Dorsey Press, Homewood, Illinois. 1978 312-313 9. Principles of Communication (Retrieved from http://www4.uwm.edu/cuts/bench/commun.htm 10. Verbal Messages in Interpersonal Communication (Retrieved from http://www.csus.edu/indiv/o/owenb/pdf%20files/verbalfunctionsofipc2008.pdf) 11. Patterns of Organization. (Retrieved from http://faculty.washington.edu/ezent/impo.htm) 12. http://www.studyguide.org/cm101_persuasive_speech.htm 13. http://foulger.info/davis/research/unifiedModelOfCommunication.htm 14. http://www.shkaminski.com/Classes/Handouts/Communication%20Models.htm 15. Communication Definition. (Retrieved from http://www.answers.com/topic/communication 16. http://www.uen.org/Rubric/rubric.cgi?rubric_id=18005 17. http://faculty.washington.edu/ezent/impo.htm Read More