Career Women Mothers vs Full-Time Homemakers - Term Paper Example

Intergroup Communication: Career Women Mothers versus Full-time Homemakers: Merely Mommy Wars or Manifestation of Greater Social Issues? June 9,2015 Introduction For mothers, deciding to stay at home to prioritize family life or choosing to work outside the home is a difficult one. Statistics are mixed on the demographics and trends of mothers who stay at home and working mothers, particularly nowadays that an increasing number of stay-at-home mothers are also working part-time (at night or during weekends or through performing contractual work online) (Paré & Dillaway, 2005). In developed and developing countries, stay-at-home mothers are often younger and have lower educational attainment than working mothers (Associated Press, 2014). Moreover, more women are working outside the home, or while in the home, including low-income mothers (Gassman-Pines, 2011). Around 29% of working mothers were employed in jobs with non-standard schedules (versus standard schedules of fixed daytime hours from Monday to Friday) in 2004 (Gassman-Pines, 2011). In developing countries, working mothers show an increasing trend, with some working mainly due to economic needs, while others, especially the educated ones, choose to work to attain personal fulfillment from their work-life identities and to pursue further education and upward career/business goals (Jabbar, 2014; Paré & Dillaway, 2005). Furthermore, having the option to work, instead of staying at home, is a hallmark of the modern age, particularly, in line with feminist and gender equality movements (Paré & Dillaway, 2005). Working women develop political power when they increase their contribution to decision-making at home, and when they rise in their organizations as top managers (Ruderman, Ohlott, Panzer, & King, 2002). In addition, they also improve social and cultural power, as they gain social approval for being independent individuals who should be able to work without being judged as neglecting their traditional gender roles and responsibilities (Jabbar, 2014). Nevertheless, working mothers continue to face work-life issues that impact career advancement (King, Botsford, & Huffman, 2009). In other words, not getting enough social support and lack of balance in family and work life can derail women from attaining topmost management positions and attaining a balanced family life-work balance (King et al., 2009). Literature Review Some studies investigated the effects of employment outside the home on working mothers and their children and found mixed results. On the one hand, Jabbar’s (2014) interviews with Jordanian mothers and teachers and maids from other countries revealed that working mothers and teachers did not agree that having maids resulted to children’s language and behavioral problems. Teachers asserted that the maids themselves had negative effects on children’s acquisition of English and Arabic languages. Jabbar (2014) noted that many of these maids did not even finish high school and speak a different language than Arabic. They had poor command of both English and Arabic that they could pass on to children whom they cared for. Jabbar (2014) and Gassman-Pines (2011), furthermore, both learned that working had negative effects on mothers’ relationships with children and children’s behaviors. Some working mothers reported not having enough time and energy to provide relaxed quality bonding activities with their children (Gassman-Pines, 2011), while others noted problematic children behaviors for those who had working mothers, including too much emotional attachment on maids, lack of courtesy, and laziness in doing school activities (Jabbar, 2014). On the other hand, other studies underlined that working mothers with high educational attainment have children who have the same or higher grades than children with stay-at-home mothers (Ara, 2012; Paré & Dillaway, 2005; Zimmerman et al., 2008). One study also noted that employment is not the main determining factor in providing quality childcare, especially care that is related to nutrition and other health criteria (Roshita, Schubert, & Whittaker, 2012). Several studies stressed that working mothers continue to feel strained with their multiple family and work roles and responsibilities, but the same mothers also reported higher self-esteem, self-acceptance, and life satisfaction (Ruderman et al., 2002; Zimmerman et al., 2008). They may even be less distressed than stay-at-home mothers because of working mothers’ access to wider social resources and challenging and rewarding careers that can improve self-efficacy and personal satisfaction (Zimmerman et al., 2008). A gap in literature exists in determining the differences in how working and homemaking mothers communicate with their ingroup, outgroup mothers, their children, and their husbands. Some studies noted that future researchers need to capture and analyze more qualitative and in-depth information that will help determine how stay-at-home and working mothers differ in their communication approaches with their children and spouses (King et al., 2009; Zimmerman et al., 2008). Furthermore, the paper believes that future studies should determine different intragroup and intergroup communication dynamics that affect how these two groups of mothers see themselves as mothers and as women and the outgroups. They can include studies on how full-time homemakers (the homemakers) and mothers who want to excel in their companies (the career women) produce and project their social identities through their language, communication styles, clothing, social artifacts, and other ways of self and group expression. Case of the Homemakers and the Career Women I observed and interviewed people from these two groups of mothers individually and as part of their ingroups. I selected them through the snowball sampling technique, where I started with one working mother and one full-time-homemaker mother and asked them for contacts. I selected four homemakers and four career women mothers. I observed their group interactions when they met at different restaurants and I interviewed them at home or at work. Homemakers and career women have distinct ingroup clothing and conversation characteristics. The homemakers had simple t-shirts and pants or shorts when meeting friends and use only shorts/pajamas and shirts at home. Career women use business suits or formal attire, even when meeting friends. In addition, homemakers like to talk about childcare, household, and marriage matters. They also converse about religion and the problems of their extended families. Those who work outside the home have more varied topics, where they talk about their work, management issues, socio-economic affairs of the nation, and politics. In terms of diet and physical activity, I noticed that the homemakers were more overweight than the career women, although one career woman was also overweight. The homemakers also put makeup on when meeting fellow homemakers. The career women were weight-conscious and regularly went to the gym or engaged in running or walking five times a week, except for one who said that she was happier when she did not mind her weight. She stressed that she ate healthy with little to no processed food, although she admitted eating a high-carbohydrate diet. The rest of the career women admitted to eating and preparing processed food, even at home, because they were more convenient. They also ate out more often than the homemakers’ families. As for educational background, almost all homemakers, except one, did not complete high school education. These homemakers were also young. All their husbands worked and had low-income jobs. One homemaker reached college, but did not finish her degree after getting pregnant. When asked if they wanted to continue their education, all homemakers said no because they fear that they would not be able to take care of their children and husbands. All working women had college degrees, with two of them completing their Master’s degree in business administration. Regarding parenting styles, the homemakers had mixed parenting styles, while the working women applied authoritative parenting approaches. Two homemakers were quite permissive in their parenting approach because they often said that they let their children do whatever they want because they are still young. Two were authoritarians in their parenting approach because they felt that they needed to impose more discipline that they did not get from their own parents. All career women mothers said they imposed an authoritative parenting style because they want their children to understand why they are wrong. They also have nannies, but they have explicit rules in childcare and housekeeping. They have checklists for their nannies and have instructed them to not spoil their children by giving them anything they want, only because they cried over it. When asked about the academic and social behaviors of their children, homemakers reported good academic standing and some problematic behaviors, while all working women reported high-academic standing and no problematic behaviors. Homemakers bragged that their children were all honor students, mostly in top five. They stressed that, though they think they have good children, two kids were regarded as spoiled. Career women stressed that their students were first honor students and active in social activities (e.g. sports or arts/music activities). They noted that they did not perceive any bad behaviors, except that their kids had high screen time (i.e. in front of computers, smart phones, tablets, and TV) and did not do home chores. Finally, when asked about how they feel regarding outgroups, they both showed strong social identification for their ingroups. Homemakers felt that the working mothers have neglected their responsibilities to their children and spouses and blame them for high divorce rates in the country. They also think that career women are too self-centered and focus more on self-development than taking care of their kids. Homemakers also noted that they are better mothers because they give time and attention to their families more than working mothers. Working mothers have negative perceptions of homemakers too. They believed that the homemakers make them feel guilty and that they should not interfere with their self-development goals. Career women asserted that they are better mothers because they are good role models to their daughters, as they prove that there is life outside the home and that women can and must strive for careers that give more meaning to their lives. Intergroup Communication Theory An intergroup communication perspective can help better understand what is theoretically going on within and between these groups and where they are headed because it helps explain communication behaviors and beliefs and may predict future communication approaches to their ingroup and outgroups. Social Identification Theory (SIT) can help determine why these groups think and behave this way toward other groups. SIT believes that group experiences impact one’s identity and sense of self (Haridakis, 2010). It states that people have strategies in preserving positive social identities, including ingroup bias, outgroup derogation, and different kinds of ingroup behaviors (Haridakis, 2010). In this case, the homemakers and the career women identify closely with their groups. They practice ingroup bias when they think their groups are superior than the outgroup in doing the same roles and responsibilities. They also perform outgroup derogation when they look down on outgroups and demean outgroup characteristics (e.g. parenting attitudes and practices). SIT can help understand why these groups feel negatively towards the outgroup and how they preserve ingroup biases (Haridakis, 2010). Principles of Intergroup Communication These two mother groups exhibit two principles of intergroup communication (Giles, 2012). These principles are the following: Group members’ multiple categories, identities, and boundaries are marked, sometimes criterially, by language (constructively by themselves or imposed from without) and in other diverse communicative ways; (first principle) The communicative practices and boundaries that differentiate social groups can, themselves, dynamically redefine or change the prevailing nature of intergroup relations… (second principle) (Giles, 2012, p.13). The first principle is evident in how group members mark their social identities through group identities. Homemakers think that career mothers were more into money and social status than the welfare of their family. They also resist the materialism that they see in career women mothers through not buying high-end brands. Working mothers, on the contrary, are updated with the latest fashion trends. They stressed that they have money, so they can flaunt it if they want. They argued that they work hard for their careers and families and deserve material rewards. The second principle is present in these groups’ intergroup communication because these groups emphasize on their boundaries and differences. Homemakers talked greatly about home and family relationships more than career women mothers. They put boundaries between them and working mothers through having negative labels for them. The same happens for career women who thought that homemakers are two steps back for feminism because they are not attaining their uppermost potential as human beings. They asserted that these women are pretending to be better, when they are not, since they are mere nannies and slaves to their husbands and children. Career-oriented women, furthermore, argued that they have more independence and better self-esteem than homemakers. Recommendations Refinement in Communication Theory and Principles SIT is helpful in explaining strong ingroup loyalty and biased views against the outgroup; however, it cannot explain more complex work dimensions for mothers. As mentioned, many stay-at-home mothers engage in business or part-time work and want more financial independence. The case for this paper does not include these women who also work, but still stay at home most of the time. SIT needs to include complex combinations of ingroup and outgroup characteristics that can introduce avenues for understanding different groups and enriching communication theories for parents. As for communications principles, they do not include the overlap of groups with other groups. Working and stay-at-home mothers both engage with other groups that impact their sense of social identity, such as the group of teachers and group of religious and media leaders. Intergroup relations and communications are more rich and dynamic in real life and these communication principles cannot fully capture the former’s richness. The practical implications of the analysis are better understanding of ingroup experiences and intergroup communication practices that shape social identities. Recommendations for Quality of Life and Future Research The epilogue presentation in class asserted that contact and education can decrease barriers, but not always, especially when groups distrust one another. In order to have a quality life, these groups should interact more with each other through school and community events, so that they can perceive their shared values on families and social wellbeing. They should also be more educated on how to use positive words in expressing their differences, so as to avoid misunderstanding and conflicts. Furthermore, they should have their children interact too, so that they could share common parenting bonds. The paper believes that sharing more positive memories together can decrease outgroup derogation. Future research must understand why mothers feel and act negatively towards outgroup mothers. The paper assumed that female bonds can reduce these differences, but apparently, female groups can also have group experiences and other factors that diminish female bonds. It believes that social factors create social identity crises when societies continue to socially construct womanhood around family life and household chores. Future studies should expand social identification theory to include more nuanced motherhood experiences and determine new theories that can better explain the causes of strains on working mothers. These groups may feel threatened by one another because of larger social issues that limit them economically, socially, and politically. Moreover, future studies should also engage in interviewing and observing more stakeholders and collect empirical data because interviews and surveys can produce biased results. For instance, in measuring children’s academic and social behaviors, observation and tests can be conducted. The same goes in measuring mothers’ depression and psychological profiles- researchers should mix qualitative and quantitative methods to cross-reference findings and interpretations. Conclusion The paper reveals the roles of SIT and communication principles in understanding ingroup and outgroup biases and behaviors. In addition, it determined unanswered questions regarding the contact and education needed to expand one’s social identity without necessarily feeling a sense of diluted group identity. Communication principles should also look into larger intergroup dynamics and social and cultural factors involved in creating social identities. The paper contributes to greater understanding of intergroup settings that are products of home and work choices and larger social, economic, and cultural forces in society. References Ara, N. (2012). Comparison of impact of educated working mothers and educated non-working mothers on the academic performance of primary school children. Review of Higher Education & Self-Learning, 5(14), 148-157. Associated Press. (2014, April 8). Leaning out: More women staying at home full-time to raise children, study shows. New York Daily News. Retrieved from http://www.nydailynews.com/life-style/women-staying-home-full-time-study-article-1.1749412 Gassman-Pines, A. 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