Questions in Communication and Social Research - Essay Example

Questions in Communication and Social Research (School March This paper will serve to address certain questions in communication and social research, using information found in the text itself. Keywords: idiothetic, nomothetic, Babbie, paradigm, quantitative, qualitative, vocabulary, causation, method, study, essentials, research ethics Questions in Communication and Social Research 1. As we raised the question – How do we know? – we found Babbie using the terms “idiothetic” and “nomothetic.” What does he mean? Babbie uses two different terms, idiothetic or ideographic, and nomothetic, to describe the different types of explanations that humans tell themselves and others on a daily basis. Idiographic explanation is “an approach to explanation in which we seek to exhaust the idiosyncratic causes of a particular condition or event” (Babbie, p. 21). Nomothetic explanation is “an approach to explanation in which we seek to identify a few casual factors that generally impact a class of conditions or events” (Babbie, p. 21). An idiographic explanation looks at all the different reasons that explain a particular course of action, whereas nomothetic explanation looks at all the different factors behind a particular course of action. Stating that their paycheck was not direct deposited on time, but a day late, that HR failed to include holiday pay on the check when it was deposited, and that they will not be able to correct it for another two days are examples of idiographic explanations to a company as to why a bill may be late. Looking at the proximity of a job to a place of residence, how much they pay versus how much may be saved in travel time, and the amount of work that will need to be done when compared to a person’s current job all fall under the blanket of nomothetic reasoning. 2. What is a paradigm? What different paradigms have we seen, according to Israel and according to Babbie? Why are they important? A paradigm is “the fundamental model or frame of reference we use to organize our observations and reasoning” (Babbie, p. 33). There are many different types of paradigms present in our world today; including the postmodern paradigm which suggests only experience is real, scientific paradigms such as Newtonian mechanics and Einstein’s theory of relativity, macrotheory which focuses on the big pictures in society, and microtheory which focus on interactions at the individual level and while these are not the only paradigms covered in the text itself, these are some of the main paradigms discussed. Paradigms are important because they not only offer a variety of different viewpoints, but they also offer certain insights into the field of study being referenced. Paradigms are “neither true nor false; as ways of looking, they are only more or less useful” (Babbie, p. 34). Every paradigm makes assumptions about the nature of reality, and offers a different way of looking at the world and the societies in it; each of these different paradigms offers a new branch of research, and new methods and concepts to be investigated. They offer a different way of seeing the world, which in turn can shed light on the resolution of different problems that may not have been answered completely, or in part, as a result of a previous paradigm. 3. What are the principle differences between quantitative and qualitative methods? Why would we choose either approach over the other? What are the strengths and weaknesses of each? When might each be appropriate? There are two different types of data that may be gathered; quantitative and qualitative data. “The distinction between quantitative and qualitative data in social research is essentially the distinction between numerical and non-numerical data” (Babbie, p.23). Babbie states that “every observation is qualitative at the outset” (p. 24), however, every qualitative observation may be turned into a quantitative one. For example, a person may state that many of the females in the class are of an above average intelligence, however, this could be turned into a quantitative statement by setting up a test, having female students in the class participate in the test, score the tests, get the results, and do the same thing with a group of females who are not in the class and then compare the two results in order to provide a numerical, or quantitative answer that means the same thing, such as: female students in the class show that they are 78% more likely to pass a test on x subject than those who are not. Qualitative statements allow for broad generalizations, which may or may not be accurate, as the two people who are discussing the matter may or may not mean the same thing when they state the same statement, as they will have different frames of reference and different backgrounds, while quantitative data provides clear and exact numbers and provides an exact frame of reference, so that both parties know exactly what is being discussed, and the correlation between the two topics being addressed; by providing quantitative data it ensures that all people are able to be on the same page, so to speak, and no confusion is present between the explanation of the data itself. Quantitative research is appropriate when a specific type of numerical data is needed, while qualitative research is appropriate when a generalized question is attempting to be answered. 4. Demonstrate your understanding of key concepts in quantitative methods from our readings/discussion, as they relate to approaching social science research. At minimum, include the following terms: concept, variable, attribute, measurement, scale, index, theory, research question, hypothesis, literature review, operationalization, sampling, randomization, validity, reliability The field of social science research, the scientific study of human society and social relationships, has a variety of different terms that are used as they relate to the field itself. Concepts are general ideas that are derived or inferred from specific instances or occurrences. Theory, as it relates to approaching social science research refers to the “systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of life” (Babbie, p. 10), such as juvenile delinquency. Variables are the “logical sets of attributes” (Babbie, p. 14). Attributes are the “characteristics or qualities that describe an object” (Babbie, p. 15); there can be independent variables and dependent variables. Independent variables are variables “with values that are not problematic in an analysis but are taken as simply given. An independent variable is presumed to cause or determine a dependent variable” (Babbie, p.18), while a dependent variable is “a variable assumed to depend on or be caused by another variable” (Babbie, p. 18). Measurements include the extent, size, length or amount of something; a quantitative explanation of a specific amount of data; they are the dimensions, quantity, or capacity of something as ascertained by comparison with a standard. A scale is a graduated range of values forming a standard system for measuring or grading something. Index is defined as something that serves to guide, point out, or otherwise facilitate reference, including, but not limited to an alphabetical list, a table, file, or catalog, or a list of keywords associated with a record or document. A theory is a thing from which a testable hypothesis is derived (Babbie, p.46). The research question is the methodological point of departure of scholarly research in the humanities; it is an expression of inquiry that invites or calls for a reply through the use of an interrogative sentence, phrase, or gesture. A hypothesis is “a specified testable expectation about empirical reality that follows from a more general proposition; more generally, an expectation about the nature of things derived from a theory. It is a statement of something that ought to be observed in the real world, if the theory is correct” (Babbie, p. 46). A literature review is the process of reading, analyzing, evaluating, and summarizing scholarly materials about a specific topic. Operationalization occurs “one step beyond conceptualization. Operationalization is the process of developing operational definitions, or specifying the exact operations involved in measuring a variable” (Babbie, p. 46). Sampling is the methodology used to sample from a larger population, depending on the type of analysis being performed. There are many different types of sampling that may be done, nonprobability sampling, which occurs when “samples are selected in some way not suggested by probability theory” (Babbie, p. 192), and purposive or judgmental sampling, which is a type of nonprobability sampling in “which the units to be observed are selected on the basis of the researcher’s judgment about which ones will be the most useful or representative” (Babbie, p. 193) are two methods of sampling. Snowball sampling is another method of sampling that may be used; it is “a nonprobability sampling method, often employed in field research, whereby each person interviewed may be asked to suggest additional people for interviewing” (Babbie, p. 194). Cluster sampling is “multistage sampling in which natural groups (clusters) are sampled initially, with the members of each selected group being sub-sampled afterward” (Babbie, p. 218). Simple random sampling, or SRS, is “a type of probability sampling in which the units composing a random population are assigned numbers. A set of random numbers is then generated, and the units having those numbers are included in the sample” (Babbie, p. 211). Systematic sampling is a form of probability sampling “in which every kth unit in a list is selected for inclusion in the sample” (Babbie, p. 211). Quota sampling is a form of “nonprobability sampling in which units are selected into a sample on the basis of pre-specified characteristics so that the total sample will have the same distribution of characteristics assumed to exist in the population being studied” (Babbie, p. 194); these are far from the only methods of sampling, though they are some of the most common. Randomization occurs when observations are placed in a deliberately haphazard arrangement in order to simulate chance in order to control the variables in the experiment. Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to, while reliability refers to the degree to which a test is consistent and stable in measuring what it is intended to measure. 5. How, according to Babbie, does one prove causation? Causation is defined as the relationship between cause and effect, causality. According to Babbie, to be able to prove causation there are three main criteria in social research: “the variables must be correlated, the cause takes place before the effect, and the variables are nonspurious” (Babbie, p. 95). It is important to note, however, that correlation does not imply causation; however, correlation may be used to prove causation in certain instances. Correlation occurs when there is “an empirical relationship between two variables such that changes in one are associated with changes in the other or particular attributes of one variable are associated with particular attributes of the other. Correlation in and of itself does not constitute a casual relationship between the two variables, but it is one criterion of causality” (Babbie, p. 96). “An idiographic explanation of causation will be relatively complete, while a nomothetic explanation is probabilistic and usually incomplete” (Babbie, p. 97), though there are exceptions that may be present in nomothetic explanations; these exceptions do not disprove a casual relationship or a casual pattern. 6. A basic observation in social science is: Don’t let the method drive the study; the study should drive the method. Why? Why is this important? A basic observation in social science is: Don’t let the method drive the study; the study should drive the method. The reason for this is to ensure the most accurate data is obtained. In other words, the person should determine what the study itself will be on, and then choose the most appropriate method by which they should conduct the study itself. If, for example, the question was one of whether Coke or Pepsi was the preferred drink, an observational study would not be the best method to choose; much less in front of a place that only offered one type of drink or the other. The best method to choose to study the preferred soft drink would be a true experiment, determining the target group for the study, setting up cups with 1 and 2 labeled on them, for example, and gathering clear, empirical data on the particular subject itself. This will ensure that the most accurate results are attained, and as such, the study itself is strengthened in its validity. In addition to making sure that the best and most accurate results are attained, this also ensures that the researcher does not unintentionally misdirect the research subjects themselves, and makes sure that the data gathered will be tailored to the research question itself, instead of attempting to tailor the research question to the data gathered after the study is complete; it makes sure that the question being answered is the question that was asked. 7. What, according to Babbie, are the essentials of research ethics? The concept of ethical research becomes extremely important when dealing with human subjects. Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing data in order to increase the understanding of the phenomenon being investigated. In order for the research to be ethical, it must be representative, “the sample (must) have the same distribution of characteristics as the population from which it was selected” (Babbie, p. 198); there must be an equal probability of selection method, “each member of the population has the same chance of being selected into the sample” (Babbie, p. 198); “researchers should be careful to point out the possibility of errors” (Babbie, p. 225); and the researcher “should make sure that the reader is not mislead” (Babbie, p. 225) by the study itself, or any display differences that may be reflected in the distribution of characteristics in the population. The information gathered should only be used for the purpose it was gathered, disclosure should be limited, and the personal data gathered should be reasonably guarded against potential security risks like loss, modification, unauthorized access, or unauthorized disclosure. Above all else, privacy is one of the most important concerns in regards to ethics. A researcher should never betray the privacy of their subjects. Misrepresentation is another big ethical concern for the researcher; they should never express false interest, say they are studying one thing when they are in fact studying another, mask the identities of the subject or subjects being studied, and never cause harm or distress, whether it be physical or psychological, to their research subjects. Ensuring that research is ethical helps to promote the aim of the research itself; it promotes the knowledge gained from the research, the truth shown by the research, and works to protect against errors that may arise throughout the course of the research. By keeping research ethical, and by requiring researchers to adhere to a code of ethical standards, it also serves to protect the participants that make up the sample group itself, requiring the researchers to be held accountable to the public. . Read More