American Teens and Violent Video Games - Research Paper Example

? Sofya Bezbogina Introduction to Mass Media and Communications Tammy Rosso November, 27 American Teens and Violent Video Games Introduction Violence in entertainment and media has always been incorporated in human lives. From battles with hungry lions watched delightedly by Romans and dramatic theater since the ancient Greeks to Shakespeare, violence had always been the main factor in the equation. However, since the mass media explosion of the twentieth century, a staggering amount of violence was made available to every person worldwide. The rise in availability came with a subsequent rise in violence in programs that had adverse effects on society. Accumulated evidence pointed that there was a “causal connection between media violence and aggressive behavior in some children” (Smith and Donnerstein). With the evolution of technology, the rise of the video game industry had given rise to a new form of entertainment that quickly became one of the favorite activities of children in the United States. Uninfluenced from economical distraught and recession, the annual income has increased over the years, with sales that amount to $16.6 billion in 2011 (fig.1).The target group of the industry included individuals ranging from various age groups, with teenagers being the one of the most prominent with surveys showing that “99% of boys and 94 of girls play video games”(Lenhart et al.). With the first appearance of video games, violence was almost always present, with the most notable example being Death Race 2000, a car racing game which involved running over spectators to collect points (Kent). Shorty after the release of the game in 1976, the uproar and protests by consumers led to the removal of the product from the shelves. The realistic nature of the game and the human-like forms that were depicted being killed in the game were the main concerns of the protesters. Other controversies created during that era included “Wolfenstein 3D”, which featured Nazi symbolism and violent shootings and the subsequent “Street Fighter” and “Mortal Kombat” franchises, featuring one-on-one fights and gory graphic sequences (Carnagey and Anderson). Violence in video games, as with violence in media, had been connected to detrimental effects on children and adolescents. With the appearance of the first violent videogame, media directly connected it with teen violence and murder instances. However since then, various correlation and observation studies have produced ambiguous and different results that either confirm or disprove the connection between violence in video games and aggressive behavior and violence in teenagers. This review will analyze the concept of violence portrayed in video games, the various aspects that are affected in teenagers, evaluate proposed solutions and suggest resolutions to alleviate those effects. Figure 1. Computer and video game sales from 2000 to 2011 (NPD) 2. Violence in Video Games The evolution of videogame technologies and graphics has differentiated the depiction of violence vastly from the original, with more realistic graphics and gore. The realistic turnpoint in the violence philosophy, was the fact that in Wolfestein 3D, enemies shot by the player fell and bled on the floor rather than disappear like in previous shooting games, clearly stating the shock value that granted the game popular and later banned (Kent). In 1993, with the release of Doom, the next major first-person shooter, new features were included such as players hunting and killing each other as well as more blood and gore. Modern-day violence in video games is distinguished in heroic violence and senseless violence. Games depicting heroic violence represent killing in the context of heroic narratives, obscuring the moral dimension of violence. These morally simplistic games present any actions taken by the player as justified and praiseworthy. The vast majority of these games are set during the World War II, one of the least morally objectionable wars in the modern history. The most prominent first-person shooters of this kind are the franchises of Call of Duty, Frontline and Medal of Honor. In these games the violence is considered heroic and the conflict is simplified with propaganda as the player fights as an American, British or Russian soldier, while Japanese and German soldiers are depicted as the enemy. The effect of these games in instilling sympathy for the victims is minimal, and the persistent stream of encouragement without any negative repercussions is believed to normalize violent behavior (Schulzke; Adams). Senseless violence is depicted mostly in controversial games that have as necessary tasks for the player to kill innocent people and police. One of the most attacked franchises of this kind is the Grand Theft Auto (GTA) series (Barrett). Each of these games of the series gives the player the ability to wander in fictional cities (that highly resemble American cities) and attacking people at will or by completing missions set by the game. Moreover, it depicts the player’s antisocial actions as unjustified and immoral while shows hints of racial discrimination, as in every game the user is depicted as Mexican or African-American causing violent crimes against innocent white civilians (Leonard). Another prime example of this type of violence is the Manhunt series, which has been the most critiqued and controversial to date. The mission of the game is to murder individuals in various ways while being recorded by a camera. This shocking fact characterized the game similar to a “snuff” film, an illegal footage which depicts murder on camera. 3. Effects of video games on adolescents Over the past 25 years, numerous studies have researched the effects on video games on adolescents. The most prominent interest of researches has been games with violent content and the association between video game use and aggressive behavior, as well on school performance. The aggressive elements portrayed have been linked to aggression on children and adolescents, but the empirical evidence was not present to validate these assumptions (Schutte et al.; Irwin and Gross). Recent meta-analytic reviews have employed both short-term experimental and correlation studies to study the harmful effects of exposure to violent games and associated them with higher levels of aggressive behavior, physiological arousal and decreased prosocial behavior (C. A. Anderson 113-22; Anderson et al.). Most of the research has associated videogame violence with school shooting incidents while some assessed their influence from a developmental perspective (Kirsh). Notable examples of murders connected to video game addiction include the “Dark Knight Massacre” where the murderer James Holmes killed 12 people in a movie screening of the movie “Dark Knight” stating that his “addiction to video games made him out of touch to reality “ (Warren and Bates). However, recent studies reveal that the impact of video game violence differs from person to person (Markey and Markey) and is possible that only violent-prone adolescents can be affected by the depicted violence. With all the conflicting data and research that has been conducted so far, all the negative and positive effects of video games of adolescents have to be analyzed and concluded fully. 4. Negative Effects of Violent Video Games The research on the effects of violent video games, however small, mirrors the larger body of research on the effects of violent films and television programs (Whaley). While many of the effects in those genres are similar, at least three reasons to believe that the former have stronger effect than violent television formats (C. Anderson, Backwell) . These include the active process of playing video games instead of the “passive” television viewing while higher probability of players to identify with a violent character occurs in first person shooters (Anderson and Dill). Additionally, most violent games reward violent behavior often with verbal praise such as “Nice shot” after killing enemies with a gun – as studies show, rewarding behavior increases its frequency (Bozza). 4.1 Aggressive behaviors, cognitions and feelings The primary concern over violent video games is the behavior that players will assume as a result of their exposure. Experimental research has shown that playing video games directly causes an increase in aggressive behaviors which could be associated with teenage crime and involvement in physical fights (Gentile et al.). Typically it’s measured with exposure to violent games before measuring shouting through headphones and it has been validated that people who play violent games give louder noise blasts than others that play non-violent video games (Bartholow and Anderson). Correlational data has also shown that violent games increase aggressive cognitions. After playing a violent game, people report to have more aggressive thoughts (Calvert and Tan) and exude a more violent approach to story line progression (Bushman and Anderson). Other studies show that players develop a higher hostile attribution bias (Lynch et al.), in which interpret a situation in a more hostile context – people with this characteristic have been shown to be socially maladjusted (Crick and Dodge). Empirical studies (Anderson and Bushman) have also proved that playing violent games leads to developing a more hostile personality, due to the increase of aggressive feelings. In some studies, people report feeling more anxious and hostile (Ballard and Wiest). 4.2 Physiological arousal In addition to psychological changes, violent video games have shown to affect numerous physiological factors, such as increased heart rate and increased systolic and diastolic blood pressure compared to others gamers (Murphy, Alpert and Walker). An experiment in playing the violent game Mortal Kombat either with the blood graphics on or off, showed increased systolic blood pressure in the former mode than the latter (Ballard and Wiest). Additionally, the effects in already aggressive adolescents are even greater in the context in increasing heart rate, blood pressure, adrenaline, testosterone and cortisol levels in the blood (Koepp et al.; Gentile et al.). This suggests that violent-prone individuals could be affected greatly by exposure to violent behavior. 4.3 Prosocial behavior As it has been shown that exposure to violent games causes physiological desensitization to real-life violence, the voluntary intention to help or benefit another individual, known called “prosocial behavior”, is diminished (Sheese and Graziano). The negative relationship between violence and helping another person can be seen in a study where violent game players were much slower to help a victim of violence than nonviolent game players (Bartholow, Bushman and Sestir). 5. Psychological processes A variety of psychological processes, both short- and long-term, underlie the effects of violent video games on adolescent behavior. 5.1 Explanations for short-term effects The short-term changes that occur in teenagers’ behaviors, thoughts and arousal levels after playing violent video games account for three psychological processes: priming of existing aggressive behavior, cognition and reactions, mimicking the aggressive actions present in the game and stimulating physiological arousal by directly observing violence (Bushman and Huesmann). Priming. Studies have shown that human memory is based on a large associative network containing numerous “nodes” and “links” A concept is represented by each node while links create an association between various nodes. An association between the concept of color yellow and the concept of happiness could lead to the association of yellow with being happy, and is the primary theory of how memories are connected in the brain (Moskowitz). Exposure to external stimuli activates the “nodes” in memory which is the process known as priming. While it’s activated without the awareness of the individual (Bargh and Pietromonaco), the downward process results in the experience of thoughts, emotions and behaviors related to the concepts. In violent video games, various stimuli are present which include weapons and violent concepts which prompt the player to think and behave more aggressively afterwards (Moskowitz). This gradually advances to a “script”, which in psychology refers to the behavior an individual resumes to when exposed to a particular situation. By observing the scenarios in video games, an individual can adopt the same pattern of behavior and recognize it as a “script”. Mimicry. The tendency of people to mimic or copy the actions of others is an innate function of primates due to the presence of “mimicry neurons” in the brain. Scientists also revealed that the brain responds in a similar fashion in when a person does something himself or watching others doing it (Hurley and Chater). Early adolescents are more likely to mimic actions as they tend to identify more with characters as perceiving them similar to themselves. Stimulating physiological arousal. The action-packed pace of violent video games can increase heart rate and blood pressure and such elevated arousal increases the probability of the dominant response tendency – the innate inclination to the manner of acting – being carried out. This is particularly important for individuals with already aggressive tendencies, as violence in video games can significantly maximize them (Geen and O'Neal). However, even people without inclination to violence can equally misinterpret the increased arousal to provocation via the process of excitation transfer, thus behaving in a more hostile manner (Zillmann et al.). 5.2 Explanations for long-term effects The effects that take place in the long-term are attributed to three psychological processes: the classical and operant conditioning of aggressive responses, desensitization of violent-induced emotional responses and observational learning. Classical and operant conditioning. In these processes the response is different according to the stimulus. In classical conditioning, a natural response is related with a neutral stimulus, as in the example of the Pavlov experiment with the dog that salivates with the presence of food and by pairing it with the sound of the bell, the mere sound elicits the same response (Pavlov). In video games, violence can elicit the feeling of fear or anger and the stimuli can be generalized. In that case, the association of a situation experienced in the game with feelings of fear or anger can elicit the same response in a future setting (Bushman and Huesmann). In operant conditioning, a behavior that is not normally relevant with a subject can become associated, if a reward is presented (Anderson and Bushman). Video games that encourage violent behavior do so by rewarding players with an increased score or reputation if they perform specific acts such as killing other characters (Shanks). In this manner a developing adolescent can become accustomed to acting aggressively in the future with the expectation of receiving a reward in the real life. Desensitization. This process involves the habituation of natural emotional and physiological reactions, resulting in the individual becoming less affected by the portrayed violence due to repeated exposure (Funk). Behaviors which may seem concerning at first (like killing someone in the videogame) may translate into normal responses after continuous experiences. Similarly, in the presence of real-life violent situations, the adolescent may not process any negative feelings towards it. By evaluating these behaviors, scientists have observed that the physiological responses are also reduced when repeatedly exposed to the violence stimulus. This is associated with an increased aggressive behavior in the future due to possible neurological fundamental changes for the desensitization that occurs (Bartholow, Bushman and Sestir). Observational learning. This differs from “mimicry” in the concept of the repeated exposure needed to be facilitated instead of a single exposure. The long-lasting changes in the teenager’s actions, feelings and behavior can be influenced by the presence of violence in video games, thus developing a hostile personality over time and normalizing aggressive actions (Kendall). The extent of affection from observational learning is largely depended on the level of identification with the character in the game as well as how that character is portrayed. The main character in the video game Bully has the task of beating up peers to earn cash, a “script” that can be adopted by teenage users and re-enacted in the real world (Huesmann and Guerra). 6. Positive Effects of Video Games Despite the research that has deemed video games as potentials aggressors of violence, a rapidly growing amount of literature has demonstrated the capability of video games, including the ones containing violence, in having beneficial psychological effects on adolescents. While most of the conclusions are derived from observations of the effects of game playing, clinical studies and treatment settings have scientifically proved the beneficial nature of playing video games. 6.1Neutralizing aggression Violent games can actually make adolescents understand violence and reduce the risk of them inflicting the violence to others. While violent content can be viewed as a way of aggressive play, the lack of intent or attempt to injure an actual living person makes it inherently different from violence itself. This gives the opportunity for adolescents to incorporate a healthy way of experimenting safely with complicated issues of war, violence and death, without any consequences in the real world (Russell). While it’s been proven that some players can extend the violent behavior in an inappropriate manner in non-play contexts, research has shown that this is more depended on the individual characteristics of the players themselves and their interaction with the videogame. The active role that adolescents have in video games rather than television or other kinds of media, enables them a deeper understanding of the depicted violence by being involved and exploring characters’ moral dilemmas and consequences. Video games such as Black & White, Swat 3 and Combat Mission are developed to encourage the understanding and consequences of the player’s actions, which the player has a choice of violence or otherwise, in order to progress in the game. This is believed to help building an early understanding of aggression and violence for adolescents. 6.2 Development of social skills and intelligence It’s believed that children that engage in such activity can extend and develop their social skills. This can be seen by the incorporation of video games between peers or with family members at home can promote interaction in a beneficial way by creating situations that pursue cooperation and gentle competitiveness. The challenging nature of video games also provided an ideal means of improving competence, self-determination and status. The initial hypothesis that the growing popularity of video games would create a generation that was absent from social interactions was invalidated with a study (Creasey and Myers) that depicted the effect of video games on children’s leisure activities, peer contacts and schoolwork The results showed that the presence of video games did not affect any of those activities. Additionally, some writers believe that video games can create an improve sense of self-worth on the player’s part by identifying themselves with the character they use in the game. The continuing evolution of the relationship between the game and the player, which starts by learning the rules, assessing them and gradually importing them into gameplay, resulting in the adoption of the rules by the player’s personality (Myers). 6.3 Therapy with video games Therapists working with children have used video games ad an aspect of child therapy which seems to be especially effective with children and adolescents in establishing a connection with the therapist to control the patient’s behavior. Notable “video game therapies” started in the 1980’s and proved to be highly helpful as training aids to some cognitive and perceptual motor disorders. One study used video games in psychotherapy sessions which allowed to improve eye-hand coordination, release of aggression and control, increasing problem-solving skills and ability to deal with joy of victory and frustration of defeat (Gardner). Similar results were achieved in an earlier study, which incorporated video games in behavior management techniques, leading to encouraged motivation, cooperative behavior, and self-esteem in children and adolescents with behavioral defects (Spence). Potential benefits also have studied the role of video games for pain and anxiety management. As they’re able to engage a person’s active attention and instill a sense of sustained achievement due to the increasing difficulty levels, they can be used as “distractions” for patients that are in pain or receive treatment. Various reports have stated the effects of distraction of video games during cancer chemotherapy in children. Less nausea and lower systolic pressure after treatment has been observed, which reduces the amount of painkillers needed (Redd et al.). Additionally, a recent study at Keele University proved that the aggressive cognition gained after playing violent first-person shooters decreased pain perception and produces a pain lessening (hypoalgesic) effect that raises pain tolerance, helpful in patients suffering from traumas (Stephens and Allsop). At a psychological level, it has been observed that video games can alleviate feelings of anxiety by measuring stress levels of women described as having highly anxious personalities and comparing them with non-anxious individuals before and after playing video games. While non-anxious women did not report any change in mood, arousal levels measured in highly anxious women depicted decreased stress levels while playing video games (Papousek and Schulter). 7. Previous solutions and explanation of failure After the controversy with the video game Mortal Kombat and the graphic scenes of violence depicted in the game, a rating system for video games was enabled, called ESRB rating. Since 1994, the ESRB rated video games with rating symbols based on age and content descriptors which are used by manufacturers to inform consumer choice. The labels are ranged as follows: Everyone (E): Suitable for persons age 6 and older with minimal violence and some comic mischief. Teen (T): Suitable for persons age 13 and older and contain violent content with mild or strong language Mature (M): Suitable for persons 17 and older and contain intense violence or language and mature sexual themes. Adults Only (AO): Suitable only for adults and include graphic depictions of sex and/or violence, intended for sale or rent to persons over the age of 18 only. However, despite the efforts the ESRB rating system does not accurately rate violence and has been deemed not applicable. One of the main issues with the rating is the incorrect labeling of each product. For example, a study that analyzed content of Teen (T) rated video games revealed a significant amount of violence, gore and sexual depictions in the 396 titles measured while revealing a staggering 48% failure to include content descriptors that suited each videogame (Haninger K). Another significant flaw in the system is the fine line that differentiates Mature from Adults Only ratings. It has been observed that M-rated games contained significant amount of violence and sexual depictions that matched the AO-rated games. The fact that the M-rating is not taken as seriously as AO, which is meant exclusively for adults, means that severe violence themes may be depicted in M-rated games which have not received an Adults Only rating (Thompson Km). The most prolific example is the game Manhunt 2, which confers a Mature rating not in prospect of the severely violent content that is depicted in the game, which will make it accessible for children that their parents might not take the M rating as seriously as they would do with AO. Most retailers refuse to carry the AO rating for their products, as it could be perceived as perverse that would be unfit for sales and try to minimize some parts of the content pass the M-rating. Another problem is the ineffectiveness of the ESRB in protecting adolescents from purchasing M-rated video games (Parvaz), due to the fact that it does not have the authority to prevent the retailer to stop the sale of M rated game to minors. Recent surveys have shown that 70% of 9-18 year old kids have been reported playing games with a M-rated violent rating (Walsh). 8. Suggestions for future solutions Better education is needed to inform parents about the deleterious effects of exposing adolescents to videogame violence. Research has showed that many parents allow adolescents to purchase games inappropriate for their age (M-Rated) while a survey has showed that only half of parents have ever used the videogame rating system (Rideout). Numerous advocacy groups have attempted to teach parents and adolescents about the rating system while the videogame industry has made numerous attempts to note the importance of the usage of such ratings. The evidence that small and underfunded efforts have failed in influencing a large part of the population deems the need of government-funded organizations that will specialize in a clear and thorough education. The failure of the ESRB systems clearly shows the need to incorporate a novel and effective means of providing description for the content of each videogame. The US government could adopt its own rating system and agency that would require all video games to be rated prior to sale and distribution, a system that has already in use by many countries such as Australia and the UK. Additionally, by creating a universal rating model will clear out the confusion among parents and the need to learn about the differences in the rating systems. Universal ratings have already applied in other media types successfully (Walsh, Gentile and Van Brederode) and a great deal of research has been done that shows an effective rating system that evaluates violence, offensive language and sexual content in the same margin across all types of video games (Gentile, Humphrey and Walsh) A better enforcement of the law about underage adolescents buying M-rated video games should be incorporated by governments. While such restrictions are common and effective in countries such as Australia and Canada, the enforcement of such laws is almost absent in the United States. While such measures have been introduced to restrict access of adolescents to video games with mature content, most of them have been overturned by the video game industries. The scientific proof that video games can be proven to cause violence is necessary to restrict access to minors that is compliant with the American law (Saunders). 9. Conclusion The majority of research that has been completed so far denotes a significant correlation between violence in video games and aggressive behavior in teenagers. Both short-term and long-term effects are analyzed, which are crucial during the stages of adolescent development as they can influence the person’s identity and personality in a wrong way. This has been repeatedly proven, with a noteworthy percentage of crimes committed by teenagers having extensive experience with violent video games. On the other hand, various positive psychological effects of the general use of video games have been proven and the inclusion of violent video games in the equation seems to be validated. However, due to the significant overpowering of the negative effects of violent video games, various measures need to be taken in order to minimize the serious implications and with further research, manage to elucidate their beneficial implications in clinical and psychological settings. Works Cited Adams, E. Fundamentals of Game Design. New Riders Pub, 2010. Print. Anderson, C. A., and B. J. Bushman. "Effects of Violent Video Games on Aggressive Behavior, Aggressive Cognition, Aggressive Affect, Physiological Arousal, and Prosocial Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Review of the Scientific Literature." Psychological science 12 5 (2001): 353-9. Print. 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