How the theories are used - Essay Example

? QUESTION THEORY Assignment: The aim of this research paper is to examine how theories are used. The relationship between theory and research will be made clear; and the relevance of research to theory. The following topics will be discussed exhaustively in the course of this project; the nature and types of theories, the differences and similarities, the views regarding what constitutes a theory and a distinction made between, not forgetting the definition and explanation of the terms theory and model, hypothesis, concept and paradigm. The relationship between theory and research will also be looked into; and how research contributes to the development. Conclusions and recommendation will be drawn from the data collected throughout the research project. Introduction A theory is a set of details about a specific theme. A theory is a tool used to explain, predict and to make understand a particular topic according to (Bedau & Humpreys, 2008). Discussion The nature of theories is explained on the basis of the evaluation of the quality of the theories. They include being logical and having consistency internally according to (Popper, 1963). Also they should be in conformity with existing data on a given topic as put forth by (Ayer, 1952), because a difference may occur if one of the theories is more precise than the other. Having said, consistency of data collected has to conform to the many independent evidences and not just one foundation. This is important as it ensures that it is in close proximity in meaning if not absolutely correct. Another important aspect is that theory's predictions should be testable since this will determine how useful the theory will be in the subject matter. The theory can be easily adopted and modified to explain new evidences and this increases the ability to be predictive over time. In addition, according to (Kitcher, 1982), a theory should raise new questions and suppose the questions can be easily answered using the strategies involved in problem solving. It is argued that a good theory is one that forbids certain things from happening and therefore the more it prohibits the better it is. It is noteworthy therefore, that there are those features that would make theories desirable, need for it to be simple in its presentation, must be economical in its attempt to explain a given phenomena and finally, it should be consistent with the theories that are related. With regard to the types of theories, there are several types as illustrated below. Firstly, it is descriptive theory which seeks to classify specific characteristics of groups, events or individuals by making a summary of the similarities observed in the data collected. This type of theory is useful when very little is known about the issue at hand. There are two categories in this type of theory: the naming and classification according to (Stevens, 1984). On one hand, the naming theory simply describes the features of a particular phenomenon and on the other, classification theory is more elaborate as it notes the dimensions which are structurally interrelated. These theories are commonly known as taxonomies. These theories are tested by the descriptive theory which may or may not use a scientific manner of data collection. The empirical method used here involves the use of open ended questionnaires or interviews, active or non active participation, hence the data may be qualitative and or quantitative. Examples of this kind of research include case studies, ethnographies and surveys. Secondly, relational theories specifies the relationship between features of events, groups and individuals. They explain the relationship between parts of a given phenomena. The development of this theory is only when the key features are known after the validation and development of descriptive theories. It answers the question what. In addition, it is generated by the co-relational research. The features of an occurrence are observed from their natural environment and the approaches used commonly are interviews and surveys. The instruments used for the measurements are standardized questionnaires and fixed observation checklists. This serves as a difference between the descriptive and the correlation research methods. The data collected can therefore be classified as either being qualitative or quantitative. Thirdly is the explanatory theory which predicts with precision relationships between features of an occurrence or the existing differences between groups (Achinstein, 2010). It deals with the cause effect and the why of a given occurrence changing. It is a theory that is developed after the aforementioned two theories have been made. This theory addresses the question, why the alterations in a phenomenon. It is tested by the experimental research which uses scientific methods of experimentation. Here, the occurrence is manipulated to determine its effects on another incidence. The designs used include the Solomon Four Group, pretest-posttest- no control Group Design and the Posttest Only designs (Apel, 2011). Experimental research necessitates data that are Quantifiable because it requires numbers to find out if the use of experiments makes a difference and by how much. The collection of data is via a standardized instrument of research and the use of advanced statistical techniques like the analysis of variance, standard deviations among others. Comparison and Contrast of Three Views of What Makes Up a Theory Different scholars shared in the views of what constitutes a theory and in most cases, the following similarities were observed. To begin with, a theory must be able to be tested, proved and disapproved. It was agreed that this would be important, reason being that it serves as a check to the quality of the theory. Further, it was put forth that in the view that they contain a broad range of concepts within a given field. This is crucial, as each hypothesis contained in a theory must be measured independently and still serves its function without its inclusion in the development of a theory. In addition, it is an important feature that addresses the question of whether or not each research project should contribute to the development of existing theories. Also, logical reasoning was used to describe the nature of a given observable fact. With regard to the differences the following was deduced: The study of science assumes that nothing can ever be proved to be the absolute truth and so it to ensure the best explanation is based on current evidence (Philip, 1982). The argument here is that there is no in between and consequently, the lumping of not proven and false theories is a total misunderstanding of science. Finally, there are two ways of data validation i.e. logic and experience and stated is the knowledge of facts is equal to the identification of their causes and effects; however, the observation of facts in their natural environment thence does not amount to Science. Distinguishing Term Theory from Hypothesis, Paradigm, Concept and Model A theory is defined as a set of details about a specific theme and therefore different to the others in the following ways: A paradigm is generally used to illustrate the summation of theories, beliefs and concepts that are combined to make up one's standpoint on life and how it works. For example, one may choose to believe or not to believe in the evolution theory vis a vis the religious views. Concepts describe abstract ideas, seeks to explain the main points of data and contents are placed together while a hypothesis is an explanation to something that has been proposed, thus different from a theory which can be a set of statements. A model is descriptive only while a theory is explanatory and descriptive. The Relationship Between Theory And Research There is a close connection between theory and research and much focus should be made on the analysis of theories, together with the evaluation of the methods used to generate and test them. As far as their functions are concerned, there is a close relationship; the search for theory and theory development is reliant on research. Research is the vehicle used in the development of theory. It is the method used to gather the data and information necessary in theories. This is regardless of whether the research is conducted for the creation of a new theory or for the testing of an existing theory. To add on this, the relationship between theory and research can be explained based on the exploration of the research design used to develop theories. The designs include experimental, descriptive and correlation. Moreover, the relationship between theory and research can be explained on the basis of the laws of cause effect. The effects are determined by the various causes. How Research, (Qualitative And Quantitative) Can Contribute To Theory-3 Ways The data collected from research may either be qualitative or quantitative data. Qualitative data is a type of research focusing on the quality of the data collected. It is analyzed by way of scrutinizing the content. This technique of data analysis sort the information into categories that come out throughout the analysis; it is participative and the analysis is in depth. Quantitative data mainly focus on the quantity of the causes and is analyzed through parametric measures of central tendency like the mean, mode and median, including the measures of variability like the range, variance, and standard deviation, together with inter quartile range. And finally, its conclusions are based on one's views; the Etic perspective of research. This means that researchers use external references to interpret a practice. Therefore, research is fundamental in theory at first; this is so as the singular facts collected to create statements about sets of facts and their likely future behavior. Research helps in the development of principles which explain and provide new insight into the human behavior. The validity of a principle is tested by conducting an empirical study. Moreover, it contributes to theory, i.e. after the data has been collected, it is disseminated to others and the sharing of information is achieved. Therefore, it adds to the theory as new findings are shared, which creates room for criticism to make a hypothesis better or to disqualify it or to embrace it. Research contributes to theory in the sense that the hypothesis that was not accepted can be stored for further manipulation to test on either new or existing theories. This archive is significant for continuance and pattern formation and consequently the preservation of historic events, groups or individuals in a given phenomenon. Explanatory theory helps in the understanding of Information Science since it organizes the experiences and therefore it is precise; as there is repeated testing of predictions and thus makes it more reliable (Popper, 1963). Due to the nature of the kind of variables observed to be, whether dependent or independent, manipulation of the variables are made possible and thus enables the establishment of correlating, casual connections together with the laws between variables. The result of the findings can be observed objectively and the opinion of the researcher does not have any influence on the outcome (Bendassolli, 2013). This is important to the understanding of Information Science as it assists in the analysis of data. This method encourages replication, so long as the original data is recorded. Other scholars have the freedom to replicate the same conditions and prove if the obtained results are similar; which is important, as it ensures that the results obtained are reliable and consistent. Some scholars are of the view that before one conduct review of literature, the analysis of data must be set out. For example, (Heat, 2006) recommends that researchers must develop inductive sensitivity in order to identify relevant literature. According to (Duhscher & Morgan, 2004), (Dunne, 2011) and (Kelle, 2005), the above argument has been the heart of the debate about qualitative research. As a result, the discussion between the relationship to method of data analysis and theory is a sensitive area that needs redress in order to fully add value to the study of Information Science. Having said all these, theories should explain the phenomena and only be supported by data indirectly. According to (Toomela, 2011), qualitative analysis is the development and study of ideas and precisely not the occurrence. It has to that way because the literature on the analysis of qualitative data, brings deeper reflections on the standing of the phenomena being studied (Hacking, 2002). A Discussion of Two Areas of Controversy Related To The Theory Since theory is tested via the experimental research method, several questions over the validity have been brought forth. First, the Hawthorne Effect, whereby the observed group knows that they are being observed and therefore respond to the test. This is likely for any research to be conducted; it is ethical for one to get the consent of the participants and due to this effect, some theorist opt to not inform their subject matter, therefore the ethical considerations when carrying out a study on a particular group. Secondly, since the experimentation is conceptualized by a human, it is subject to error. There is the likely hood of personal bias. For example, certain preconceptions and stereotypes may determine the course the research takes and thereby affect the behavior of the subjects. Thirdly, it is argued that the use of qualitative data does not answer the questions of what occurrences are (Bernard & Ryan, 2010). Limitations To This Study Due to the nature of explanatory theories, one works with data that is standard and therefore limiting, since exceptions or counterexamples cannot be appreciated. To be able to fully understand the nature of explanatory theories one has to work in the confines of specific traditions in the qualitative method of data analysis (Grbich, 2007). Conclusion In summary, the experimental research method is still the best, as far as ensuring its accuracy is concerned. It can be mixed with other methods in order to overcome the disadvantages though. For instance, mixing of experimental methods with case studies, interviews and ethnography. By so doing, the validity of this method of data analysis is added. Further, the choice of the methodology used to conduct research is determined by the questions asked and the condition of the development of the theory, such that if there is little known about a phenomena, then descriptive research will be needed, if the occurrence has been described and its relation with other phenomena is not known; then correlation research would be appropriate and finally, if both the phenomena and its relation to others is known then the experimental research model would be appropriate. References Achinstein, Peter (2010). Evidence, explanation, and realism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Apel, Jochen (2011). On the meaning and the epistemological relevance of the notion of a scientific phenomenon. Synthese, Ayer, Alfred J. (1952). Language, truth and logic. New York: Dover. Bedau, Mark A. & Humphreys, Paul (2008). Emergence: Contemporary readings in philosophy and science. Cambridge: MIT Press. Bendassolli, Pedro F. (2013). Theory Building in Qualitative Research: Reconsidering the Problem of Induction [50 paragraphs]. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, Bernard, Russell B. & Ryan, Gery W. (2010). Analyzing qualitative data. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Bogan, Jim & Woodward, James (1988). Saving the phenomena. Philosophical Review, Chalmers, Alan F. (1999). What is this thing called science? Indianapolis: Cambridge University Press. Grbich, Carol (2007). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Hacking, Ian (1983). Representing and intervening. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hacking, Ian (2002). Historical ontology. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Halvorson, Hans (2012). "What Scientific Theories Could Not Be". Philosophy of Science The University of Chicago Press Heat, Helen (2006). Exploring the influences and use of the literature during a grounded theory study. Journal of Research in Nursing. Retrieved, 29th Nov, 2012 Kelle, Udo (2005). Emergence vs. forcing of empirical data? A crucial problem of grounded theory reconsidered. Forum: Qualitative Social Research,Accessed: December 20, 2011, Retrieved, Nov 29th, 2013. Philip Kitcher 1982 Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism, Cambridge: The MIT Press Popper, Karl (1963), Conjectures and Refutations, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, UK. Reprinted in Theodore Schick (ed., 2000), Readings in the Philosophy of Science, Mayfield Publishing Company, Mountain View, Calif. Popper, Karl R. (1959). The logic of scientific discovery. London: Hutchison. Reichertz, J. (2009). Abduction: The logic of discovery of grounded theory. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 11(1), Art. 13, [Accessed: January 10, 2012]. Suppe, Frederick (1998). "Understanding Scientific Theories: An Assessment of Developments, 1969–1998". Philosophy of Science The University of Chicago Press Toomela, Aaro (2011). Travel into a fairy land: A critique of modern qualitative and mixed methods psychologies. Integrative Psychology and Behavioral Science, retrieved 29thNov, 2013 Read More