The Whole Earth Network - Literature review Example

? Computer Sciences and Information Technology Introduction Historically, great empires are known to have possessed powerful administration systems that they used for communication purposes and information handling. The scale and nature of computer ideas and concepts has however changed dramatically for the last four decades. In the computer historical era, these empires used to handle their administrative records and messages reliably and at minimum cost. Each of these empires possessed their own characteristic information handling technology, which makes them formulate their own technological solutions. This paper will focus on the Roman, the British, and the Third Reich empire and how they handled their computer administration systems (Black, 2002). The Roman Empire The Ancient Roman Empire began its history as a city-state. The early Roman Empire culture was unique and had a significant influence on the Western world. Rome is known to be an empire that conquered many territories around the Mediterranean Sea. Rome grew into a huge empire because of how it applied technological concepts and ideas in its activities. Roman Empire had powerful administration systems that it used to handle information of individuals and the cities it conquered. This empire would then use the information to give citizenship to the people of those cities (Black, 2002). Roman Empire applied its technologic systems in recruiting its army and administrative purposes such as in voting. Roman Empire relied on agriculture to drive the economy. The infrastructure was made using stone, sand and marrum, which is, still used today where a multi-layering technique was used to ensure stability of the road. Therefore, the ideas and concepts of the Roman Empire are still in use4 today only that modern administrative systems are used today. The Roman Empire had a significant influence on the Western World and continues to do so today (Black, 2002). The British Empire In the British empire the historical foundation of computer technology explains why computing systems are designed as they are today. The pioneers of computing systems from the 1950s had an impact on the subsequent advancement of those systems. The early history of computing systems began with the abacus that was advanced to deliver the UNIVAC I. For example the First Generation computers (1951–1959) were made using vacuum tubes as the storage device. Subsequent developers would advance on this original work by replacing various hardware components in order to deliver a more faster and powerful Product. An example is the work of Charles Babbage who was a British mathematician, inventor, philosopher, and mechanical engineer. Babbage invented the first programmable computer that eventually inspired more complex designs such as the abacus. Another example is The Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM), that is also referred with the term “Baby” (Black, 2002). This was the world's first stored-program computer and although initially it was not meant to be a practical computer, it was actually meant for a test bed for Williams Tube, which is the earlier memory device. Baby was built by Frederic C. Williams, Geoff Tootill and Tom Kilburn at the Victoria University of Manchester in the early 1950s was a powerful administrative system with many functions in the British empire owing to its ability of rapid manipulation of numbers (Black, 2002). After the development of Baby, the subsequent computing hardware devices were developed and categorized into various “generations” based on the technology that would be used. Third Reich The Third Reich, is the official Nazi designation for in Germany dating from January 1933 to May 1945, and presumed as the official successor of the medieval and early German Empire from 1871 to 1918 referred as the Second Reich. The IBM and the Holocaust book tells the story of IBM's conscious or direct involvement or through its subsidiaries in the Holocaust. Besides this, the book tells of IBM’s involvement in the Nazi war machine that murdered millions of people in Germany and in Europe (Black, 2002). Jews had to be identified so that they could be targeted for asset confiscation, deportation, ghettoization, and ultimately extermination. To search for generations of communal, governmental, and church records all across Germany, a compute had to be used as the task a so monumental cross-indexing task. The IBM invention of punch card and card sorting system a computer pre-cursor primarily was IBM’s technologic invention that made Hitler’s mission successful (Black, 2002). IBM Germany, using its own equipments and staff dispensed the technologic assistance that Hitler's Third Reich required to accomplish human destruction in a level that had never been heard of before. Thousands of multi-machine sets were dispatched throughout Germany and in German-dominated Europe regions (Black, 2002). Product Line Mr. Isaacson in his new autobiography say that the innovation of Jobs has turned the kiddie-computing lessons into a purposeful theory of intelligent design. Steve Jobs understood that the clientele of Apple was always straddling the kiddie-computing and the adultcomputing worlds. Steve Jobs understood this and knew that the Apple product line had to be outward looking in order to edge down its competitors (Isaacson, 2011). Jobs valued simplicity, utility and beauty in ways that would shape his creative imagination that would stun his competitors. Steve Jobs is known to be a complicated and grueling man where he parts of his personality can be described as messy. However, the success of Apple’s product line can be traced to the genius attributes and leadership skills of Steve Jobs. Most of Apple’s previous products have fallen under the luxury product segment and the entertainment. The history of Apple’s product line dates back in the last 30 years in 1976 when Steve and his buddy sold off their prized possessions namely an HP calculator belonging to Wozniak and Jobs'  VW van to raise money for launching Apple. In 1976 Apple launched Apple 1 which unlike other computers at the time that came in kits and required an engineer to assemble, the original Apple 1 came with a complete circuit boards although users still had to add their keyboards, monitors and cases. In 1977, Apple released Apple 1 that came with 12K of ROM, and a maximum 6-color screen (280 x 192) resolution (Isaacson, 2011). Apple II took the market by storm and it became an instant success. The 1984 original Mackintosh that was much cheaper than the competitor’s GUI-driven computers and more user-friendly and intuitive than most other PCs, still using MS-DOS in those days. The influence of the original Mac in the computing industry was incredible although it did not garner as much market share as DOS (later called Windows) Isaacson, (2011). Apple released the iMac in 1998, which sold over 800,000 computers during the first five weeks. Today Apple has worked in merging luxury with functionality. Mr. Jobs’s virtual reinvention of the music business with iTunes and the iPod is incredible. Mr. Jobs, would personally persuade musicians to accept the iTunes model. Currently, Apple has introduced its newest product line the iRobot. Apple’s product line has as usual continued to push integration. This is especially within its own products where updated versions are merged into one. Example is the ipad or iphone that merges the functions of iPod with a more exclusive product line (Isaacson, 2011). From Counterculture to Cyberculture From Counterculture to Cyberculture is a book that explores the extraordinary transformation and development of the digital technology. Fred Turner traces the untold stories of a highly influential entrepreneurs from San Francisco area. Stewart Brand reflects a considerable marketing talents and stands out at the heart of the utopian mission stands. Brand, Kevin Kelly, and the sixties counterculture scene of the 1960s coined the famous aphorism "information wants to be free and expensive.” In the early 1960s, computers became as a nightmare in the imaginations of the American imagination owing to the bleak tools utilized during the cold war that embodied the mechanical and organizational conformity of the complex military. However, computers today represent a very different kind of perspective owing to the dawn of the Internet. This would not have been possible without the input of a collaborative and digital utopia of great entrepreneurs (Turner, 2006). The collaboration of former counter-culturalists, right-wing politicians and pundits, as well as corporate executives may in the eyes of many appear to many as contradictory near appear impossible but as the world wide network suggests, it isn't. These counter-culturalists were gradually turning away from agonistic politics and embracing technology and entrepreneurship. The principles of the work of these communards of the 1960s led to the utopian vision congenial to the insurgent Republicans of recent times. Although Stewart Brand, Kevin Kelly, and the sixties counterculture scene decried the hedonism existing in the 1960s counterculture, they shared its general affection empowering technological elites, building new companies, and rejected traditional structures of governance (Turner, 2006). The rose to power, surpassing even many right-wing politicians and executives who longed to share the credibility that the carried. Stewart Brand art scene of the 1960s and communes of the Southwest, made a considerable impact on the development of the computer science of the 1970s, and on into the corporate world that was experienced in the 1980s and 1990s. Brand and the people around him had an enormous talent in spotting the forward edges of technological and social changes, a practice that had a big influence on the popular understandings of digital technology. Besides this, Brand and the others cannot be recognized only because of the technological changes they influenced but also for the complexity and richness of the networks, they have built. Brand's entrepreneurial skills, and the now-popular association of computers and computer communication in conjunction with the democratic social principles of the counterculture, are important features of an progressively more networked way of living, working, and organization of the social and cultural power (Turner, 2006). However, it is worth noting that the revolution represented in the digital computing technology we now enjoy began long before the widespread appearance of the Internet. It began with the experiences of World War II, where the cybernetic discourse and work styles of the military carried collaborative research with the communitarian’s counterculture vision (Turner, 2006). References Black, E. (2002) IBM and the Holocaust: The Strategic Alliance Between Nazi Germany and America's Most Powerful Corporation. New York. Three Rivers Press Isaacson, W (2011). Steve Jobs. New York. Simon & Schuster Turner, F. (2006) From counterculture to cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the rise of digital Utopianism. Chicago. University Of Chicago Press. Read More