Psychological and economical effects of Robotic/Remote Surgery - Research Paper Example

? Psychological and Sociological Effects of Robotic/Remote Surgery PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS The rapid growth and development of robotic technologies over the past two decades has had an enormous impact on the use of robotics in many fields of application, including rehabilitation, surgery, diagnosis, and prosthetics. Other fields include our daily life basic like withdrawing cash from automated teller machines (ATMs), tuning microwave ovens or washing machines with less efforts everyday, and push buttons on elevators and lifts. All these are part of the robotics concept, though some of these tasks are ingrained into our daily lives as normal activities. However, some distinct groups of robotics scientists consider the interaction of machines with or through robots to be more specific and critical, unlike the other machine operations (Khatib, Kumar and Pappas, 2009). Their argument often poses confusion between machine robots and living robots (those that are used instead of humans). This brings in the ideas of objective robots (the concept of machines executing coded programs) and subjective robot (the concept of anthropomorphic robots and the consequent common folk imagination). Nonetheless, psychological effects are present in both cases of robotics application. Robots will soon replace many human application areas at home and the workplace. There will obviously be some unprecedented changes along with philosophical, political, psychological, and social impacts. This is evident by the stereotypical science fiction that suggests that robots will at one time become so intelligent and decide to take over the world from the inferior human race. These are some of the psychological reasons put forth for the lack of embracement of the robots in the daily life. In reality however, such perceptions might not be possible, as the robots may follow certain rules like the Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics. Another possible assumption is that of Singularity occurring, where people will be half-human and half robots, or cyborgs. Surgical robotics on the other hand is gradually making its debut on the medical field. Though not well established, robotic assisted surgery is becoming more popular among surgeons. The main barriers for the adoption of robotic or remote surgery for nonusers and users are perceived usefulness, perceived behavioral control, and perceived ease of use and complexity (Khatib, Kumar and Pappas, 2009). There has been limited research on the benefits of remote surgery over the normal open surgery, but available study may be a base for such queries. The study, famous as Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) evaluates the elicited beliefs analyzed from in-depth interviews of surgeons. The UTAUT study begins by identifying the advantages of open surgery, laparoscopic surgery, and robotic assisted surgery individually. Some of the advantages of open surgery include direct access to the site of operation and being the only options on certain types of patients, like obese patients. Nonetheless, open surgery requires incisions that result in long healing duration, risk of infection, and a trademark scar. Advantages of laparoscopic surgery include minimal invasive processes, shorter healing durations, few infections, minimal postoperative pains, and better outcomes. Its advantages include camera instability, fatigue, limited dexterity, loss of depth perception, miscommunication, and poor ergonomics (Lin, Abney and Bekey, 2012). Robot-assisted surgery is the use of computer controlled, self-powered robots programmed to manipulation and position of surgical instruments. Advantages of these surgical techniques include better performance, better dexterity, improved ergonomics, depth perception, tremor elimination, scalable motions, and camera stability. However, these robots lack force feedback, pose risk of failure or malfunction, are bulky, cost, operation time, incompatibility with laparoscopic instruments, and possible port placement threats. An example of a commercial surgical robot is the Da Vinci, made by Intuitive Surgical Inc. There has been partial acceptance and rejection of robotic surgery among surgeons. Among the facilitating factors, include perceived usefulness, attitude towards using technology, and facilitating conditions. Under the perceived usefulness study construct, interviewed users cited the enhanced features of the robots as a source of attraction. Another factor that facilitates adoption of remote surgery and robotics use is the facilitating conditions. Users of robotics and remote surgery equipments expressed confidence in using the technology due to the technical support provided by the supplying technology company. Most users put forth comments that they enjoyed using robots in surgery as the main motivational attitude towards using technology. The barriers prohibiting adoption of robotics application in surgery include personal outcome expectation, perceived usefulness, perceived behavioral control, and perceived complexity and ease of use. The main challenge to acceptance among surgeons was the loss of tactile feedback, as opposed to the usual way of touching organs during operations. Another often-cited barrier is that of time taken to set up the robot, and the operational and maintenance costs. The UTAUT study brings forth the reasons for surgeon perception of remote surgery, their reasons for acceptance, and rejection. In conclusion, these factors can be narrowed down to performance benefits, attitude, and outcomes. The main downturn of remote surgery is the lack of tactile feedback. Due to the fixed charges of robotic operation and maintenance, robotics and remote surgery are relatively expensive and thus only available for the wealthy members of the society. The marketers of robotics, with emphasis on surgical robots and remote surgery equipment, use media coverage and online advertisements. The public is thus inclined to seek these technological advancement, with further advertisement of the hospitals that posses such technologies. According to surgeons in different hospitals that perform robotic-assisted surgeries, account the increase of surgery patients to the advertisement of the remote surgery procedures. Another method of selling out the technology is through the routine maintenance checks and quick response to queries and assistance. Applying Abraham Maslow’s theory of motivation, the robotic and remote surgery satisfies some of the basic needs as stated by the theory, inclusive of all the five stages of motivation: physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, self-esteem, and self-actualization. Beginning at the bottom end, physiological needs fulfilled by robotic technology includes the need for accessing appropriate surgical care and carrying out tasks without endangering the lives of human. The latter is more common in heavy risk industries like steel casting and heavy machinery assembly industries. Moving a step up, robotics technology satisfies the safety needs of its users and nonusers (Harris, 2011). In remote surgery, the patient undergoes less pain and other related problems as compared to the other forms of surgery. The same case applies in other areas of application that require robotics technology to achieve minimal injuries and eliminate human error. It is widely acceptable that human being feel safer when they apply high-level technology in their routine applications, thus the safety need satisfaction. With the acknowledgement of technology as the current civilization trend, both direct and indirect users of robotics technology feel satisfied socially when using the applications, whether in military, commercial, or medical fields (Rosenberg, 2004). The experience creates a sense of belongingness of oneself to the technological world. The last two levels of Maslow’s theory of motivation mostly apply to the direct users of robotics technology. Regardless of the time they take to accomplish allocated tasks, the end performances of the tasks are done well and with some degree of perfection. An example is in the remote surgery and process management where the tasks are more accurate and excellently done as compared to the human methods. In addition, the self-esteem of the users receives a boost concerning the tasks done, or to be done. The physiological effects of robotics and its application in the day-to-day lives of the community are diverse and numerous, and with both negative and positive benefits (Harris, 2011). Nonetheless, the positive physiological impacts outnumber the negative impacts on a benefit-effect basis. In other words, the merits of the robotics technological advancement neutralize the demerits resulting from the adoption of the technology. 2. SOCIOLOGICAL EFFECTS The positive and negative effects of robotics technology are enormous in different measures. The benefits of robotics application are unmatched, but their negative impacts on the social lives of human beings are also significant. According to a workshop carried out by the Office of Technology Assistance (OTA) on the social effects of robotics, there were four main areas of concern: capital formation and production labor, education and training, international impacts, and other applications. i. Capital formation and productivity Today, robotics technology is widely used in industrial production despite application in other fields of specialty like in military and surgery. The robotics technology is used to obtain increased optimum production in industries and efficiency. Nonetheless, it would be false to state that the entire efficiency and optimum production of industries rely entirely on the technology of robotics, as industrial production is a complex process that involves several other factors (Lin, Abney and Bekey, 2012). Critics argue that robotics is just a part of the wide array technologies used to automate production and manufacturing processes and to increase production. In addition, industrial productivity is in itself a block of interacting factors, not robotics technology only. Despite these warnings, robotics technology is still a vital element in industrial production. In the world today, most robotics application in the large manufacturing and production firms, but there has been recent advancement in the use of robots in other small-scale fields (Lin, Abney and Bekey, 2012). In the commercial sector, there have been more small firms engaging in the development and production of software for special type electronic equipment, which are the fundamental elements in robotic technology. In additionally, there is evidence that robotic technology influence the minimum scale by lowering it thus increasing production efficiency. Lastly, there is the fear that there may be a looming foreclosure threat to small manufacturing firms that do not employ robotics due to their costs. Capital formation for the financial support of robotics has been an issue for some time now. Despite important advancements in the electronics industry like miniaturization, the parts required to make a robotic application and the associated software are still relatively high (Rosenberg, 2004). The major concern for the robotics capital formation involve three major areas: funds for modernization of industries, funds for expansion and construction of industries for mass production of robots, and funds for developing new types of robotic applications. However, funds are available, but only for private or governmental purposes, not commercialization of the robotics application on the world market. ii. Labor Unemployment is the main social impact resulting from the adoption of robotics technology. The context is not well understood due the various conceptual problems associated. The impact of improving productivity by robotics technology affects labor in a number of ways. The factors that determine the effects of robotics include the extent of changes in production levels and prices associated with the technology, the effects of the technology on the capital-labor ratio in the industry, and the available supply of skilled and qualified workers on the industry (Krishnan, 2009). Defining productivity improvement as the process in which fewer employees produce a specified volume of products, the robotics technology then does increase the level of unemployment. However, the number of workers in an industry may rise or remain constant given that the increase in productivity goes hand in hand with increase in production volumes. This will result in an increase or decrease in effective labor compensation, which largely depends on the profitability and production volumes of the industry. In order to understand the effect of adoption of robotics technology in all fields of application, there must be a baseline to be used to measure job gains or loss. The baseline may be an extrapolation of the current labor trends, but with virtual employment and virtual unemployment (Lin, Abney and Bekey, 2012). Another important sociological impact of robotics is the quality of working environment. As robots will be used in dangerous and unpleasant conditions, it means that the working environment of the workers will improve. iii. Education and Training The learning curve of robotics application is a major concern, in both human understanding of their operation and the robotics understanding of the human operations. Automation of industrial or medical processes may require further education on the subject, which may be impossible in some scenarios. iv. International impacts and Other Applications On international impacts, there is a stiff competition concerning the robotics technology, especially in America, Europe, and Asia. This competition gives rise to conflicts regarding export and import policies on robotic technology (Krishnan, 2009). The social impacts under other applications include the fear of increased productivity and advancement in the manufacture warfare weapons. Production of weapons is a threat to the society in general. The effects of robotics technology depend on the field of specialty. In the medical field, companies like Intuitive Surgical Inc (which makes the da Vinci surgical robots) have respect and acknowledgement for their contribution. However, there are others as the Monsanto Corporation (the leading non-organic food producer in the world), which has a bad reputation for their technological innovation. The company, which deals with the genetically modified organisms (GMO), has come under fire from the general society for its negative impacts on the environment and nutritional components of its food products. The company has some a connection with most non-organic food producing companies, and controls about 70% processed food products in America, and another stunning 90% of genetically engineered seeds. Some of the major problems associated with the company are environmental degradation, and nutritional contents of its products. Other sociological impacts of the robotics technology include what may be referred to as the extinction of some specialized communities, like partially deaf individuals, physically disabled, and others. This is due to the technological advancements that enable such individuals to overcome some of the difficulties that initially made them unique to that community. Examples of such technologies include cochlear implants, orthotics, prosthetics, and sensory aid services (Hodson and Sullivan, 2008). Despite these seemingly negative impacts, individuals using these technological devices improve their standards of living. For example, physically disabled in the past and relied heavily on other people become independent and self-reliant. Concerning the GMO issue, foods products may be produced relatively fast and thus enable the eradication of poverty, especially in the third-world countries in Africa. The benefits of these technologies far outweigh their perceived negative impacts to the society, whether physiologically or socially. The traffic lights and highway control systems are also examples of robotics technology and automation. These systems work autonomously with a certain degree of human intervention to manage and control the movement of traffic in major roads and highways. In addition, there are Closed Circuit Television cameras that record activities in given cities around the world, an example being New York City. The recordings have had a huge impact in the manner in which the police force and the defense department maintain low criminal record activities (Krishnan, 2009). This is a relief to many New York City residents, but there has been other concerns. Some residents feel that the fitting of CCTV and security cameras in the city denies them some of the fundamental rights of freedom and privacy. Such are the eyebrow raising concerns of some section of human rights activists. References Harris, D. 2011. Engineering Psychology and Cognitive Ergonomics. Berlin: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. Hodson, R. and Sullivan, T. 2008. The Social Organization of Work. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Khatib, O., Kumar, K. and Pappas, G. 2009. Experimental Robotics: The Eleventh International Symposium. Berlin: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. Krishnan, A. 2009. Killer Robots: Legality and Ethicality of Autonomous Weapons. Surrey, England: Ashgate Publishing Limited. Lin, P., Abney, K. and Bekey, G. 2012. Robot Ethics: The Ethical and Social implication of Robotics. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Rosenberg, R. 2004. The Social Impact of Computers. California: Elsevier Academic Press. Read More