Language Attrition - Report Example

Language Attrition LANGUAGE ATTRIRTION Introduction For speakers who use more than one language routinely, it is possible to use these languages in slightly varying ways compared to monolinguals or those who speak one language (Weltens et al, 2009: p16). This loss of a portion of either their first or second language, or total loss of one language, is referred to as language attrition. This phenomenon is the topic study of the three articles that will be critiqued in this paper. In “Developmental Linguistic Interdependence and Bilingual Education: Cummins and Beyond”, the researcher seeks to use Cummins’ hypothesis on bilingual interdependence to examine the presence of developmental interdependence and additive bilingualism for Hispanic children in large urban centers in Newark, NJ. This is done by investigating the development of first and second language in a single group of primary school bilingual children for 3 consecutive years. In the second paper, “First Language Attrition”, the author also considers research into first language attrition, seeking to show that alterations to the first language system affect knowledge and processing in bilingual development. Finally, in “Research Findings on Early First Language Attrition: Implications for the Discussion on Critical Periods in Language Acquisition”, the author focuses his research on subtractive bilingualism and the developmental shift towards a single dominant language in the learning of a second language by children. Research Study #1: Developmental linguistic interdependence and bilingual education: Cummins and beyond Ramirez (1987) seeks to tie his research to Cummins’ bilingual-interdependence hypothesis in tackling his research problem, which revolves around the controversy of bilingualism in US schools, especially with regards to Hispanic children. Acknowledging the need for these children to be well rounded in their English skills, the researcher considers whether this means that their vernacular should be allowed to disappear or be kept alive (Ramirez, 1987: p81). This opens up a problem for research purposes, which is whether bilingualism hinders mainstreaming and acculturation or aids the child’s speedy transition into English. The research problem as stated makes it possible for the researcher to investigate through collection of data and its analysis, allowing him to make a conclusion about whether bilingualism is of any use to Hispanic children and, thus, whether it should be maintained or done away with. The author also provides background information that supports the reasons for his study, using Cummins’ hypothesis, which contends that the competence of a child in their first language is a partial function of their ability in the second language (Ramirez, 1987: p81). This qualifies the educational and significance of his study because, following from this hypothesis, failure to acquire proficiency in vernacular language will impact negatively in their learning of a second language in school. The researcher ensures that the research variables, bilingual education and linguistic interdependence, are the basis of his research problem. Probably because his research is based on Cummins’ developmental-interdependence hypothesis, the researcher’s literature review is based on other studies that have sought to test and improve on Cummins’ hypothesis (Ramirez, 1987: p82). However, in this case, he only offers a review of literature that focuses on developmental interdependence in Hispanic children. Although, this works to narrow down research, it would have sufficed to include in the research topic title that the study would focus on Hispanic children. In addition, the four studies reviewed by the author could be considered sketchy, especially since they only offer the research problem, conclusion, and limitations. Considering the methodology, for instance, would have qualified the limitations pointed out by the author. Moreover, most of this research is secondary in nature and the review does not state whether the respective researchers used any primary methods. However, in relation to the research problem, the literature review is relevant and the limitations pointed out support the significance of the research problem. In addition, the section does conclude with a summary of the literature’s implications for the research problem, which is that a longitudinal study is required for investigating bilingual development in primary schools (Ramirez, 1987: p81). These implications form an empirical rationale for the hypothesis stated by the author; that the development of first language skill in primary school children is important for effective fostering of second-language skills. This hypothesis is testable using a comparative longitudinal analysis of primary school children with higher and lower proficiencies. The author describes his study sample’s characteristics and size by stating that the full population of 75 third-graders would be used, while also mentioning that this group was selected during their first grade and had undergone consecutive language tests in the two previous years in Hispanic and English (Ramirez, 1987: p83). There is no information about the use of volunteers, although this may not be necessary because the study is using children. However, the researcher fails to give the major characteristics and size of the population from which the participants are studied, which makes it difficult to ascertain whether the sample is unbiased and representative. However, the use of the entire first-grade class as the study’s sample indicates that this may be the case. The researcher used language proficiency tests as instruments to test core variables (Ramirez, 1987: p83). However, the measurement for background variables and IQ scores is not given and only the variables are mentioned. There is also no discussion of the validity of the Spanish CTBS test, English MAC test, and LAB-82. The reliability is discussed, although briefly, with regards to the size and type of reliability coefficients by commenting on the results of the two-way analysis of covariance, as well as a multiple linear regression analysis. The author uses a longitudinal research design (Ramirez, 1987: p85), which is appropriate for testing the hypothesis since it requires the sample to be followed over a period of time, while also making repeated observations. The results are also appropriate for the variables set up since they give descriptive statistics regarding the relationship between the English proficiency scores that were the dependent variable and the year and Spanish proficiency, which were the independent variables. In addition, the author also discusses the results in terms of the hypothesis as originally stated, since the results relate the effect of Spanish proficiency to the ability to gain English proficiency (Ramirez, 1987: p87). Finally, the researcher discusses the individual results as it disagrees and agrees with the results from the research studies in the literature review with regards to linguistic-interdependence profile and inter-linguistic developmental profile. Research Study #2: First language attrition Schmid (2013) seeks to cover a broader but similar problem in his research; that, while bilingualism investigations are focused on cross-linguistic traffic and knowledge increase from the first to second language, research on reduced accessibility of the same from the second to first language is less understood (Schmid, 2013: p95). Thus, the author’s research problem is the difference present between languages acquired later in life, and from birth where there is intensive cross-linguistic competition and interaction. This problem can be investigated through collection of data about those who have learned a language from birth and those who have learnt it as a second language and comparing and analyzing the data. The educational significance of this study is discussed in depth with a succinct examination of the teaching of second languages in US universities and high schools, as well as whether this was worth the effort given the that the knowledge imparted seemed to have a short half-life. Therefore, it is important to investigate whether there is a way to prevent the process of deterioration. With regards to the literature review, the author conducts an extensive review that follows the evolution of language attrition studies through the decades, although it is also stated that language attrition studies are a fairly recent area of study. The review is also relevant to the problem being researched with majority focused on the investigation of language attrition as part of the overall development of language. Following from this, the literature review focuses on accounting for attrition together with various external aspects of language processing, use, and acquisition (Schmid, 2013: p96). The implications of the author’s literature review lead to a theoretical rationale for the hypothesis, which is that changes to the first language system are part of developing bilingual processing and knowledge (Schmid, 2013: p96). The relationship between the two variables in this case, bilingual processing and the first language system, are well stated in the hypothesis. In addition, it is possible to test this hypothesis by investigating whether maturational constraints impact on second language learning. In testing this hypothesis, the author uses research articles that discuss language attrition and, as such, he does not discuss the size of his population. However, the major characteristics of the population are described as being those that concern the location of attrition effects and the impact of external factors (Schmid, 2013: p95). As with all historical research, it was not possible for the researcher to ensure that the sample of literature selected was representative, while there was also the possibility of sample bias during selection of the sources. In addition, there is no discussion on the validity of the instruments used, while the size and type of reliability is not discussed, as well. The historical research design used in this case is appropriate for testing the hypothesis because it allows the author to compare results from studies discussing the relationship between the first language system and the development of a second language. It allows the author to collect, verify, and synthesize the evidence from past research articles on first language attrition as a way to establish facts for him to refute or defend the hypothesis (Weltens et al, 2009: p16). It is also suitable because Schmid is conducting the study in order to understand trends of first language attrition. In addition, through this research design, the author is able to add important background needed to understand first language attrition and interpret it. Finally, it also allows for a study that can be replicated and used to study a different problem, such as whether those adopting second languages can re-learn the first language more easily later in life. Schmid presents appropriate descriptive statistics that show relationships between learning a second language and the critical period within which it happens, as well as other external factors like the extent of exposure to the first language (Schmid, 2013: p110). The results are discussed in relation to the original hypothesis, especially with regards to what governs first language attrition. Research Study #3: Research findings on early first language attrition: implications for the discussion on critical periods in language acquisition The most positive aspect about Francis’ article relates to the clarity of the research problem statement, while its major flaw is its limited scope of content. For example, the most prevalent debate about first language attrition is Cummins (1974) study, which is not included in the research. The article begins by outlining the problem statement in the introductory paragraphs, emphasizing on the need to qualify the assumption that an individual’s language faculties are specifically designed to accommodate input of a bilingual nature (Francis, 2005: p492). However, this specific problem was not addressed directly until it was identified by the researcher just before stating his hypothesis. In addition, there is no mention of it in the abstract section of the paper. With regards to the literature review, the author does not mention the number of studies that are being considered for the research, but manual counting of the relevant sources can place them at ~ 14 published between 1991 and 2004. A number of these sources were primary in nature (Francis, 2005: p492). While the researcher conducted a reasonable job in highlighting earlier research on the topic as they related to their research, he does neglect to synthesize the information or give opinions about their implications for the current research. Instead, he moves on directly to the hypothesis statement. The author explored testable variables, firstly, in relation to early first language attrition and critical periods in acquisition of language, secondly in componential nature of language ability, and thirdly in access to universal grammar in the second language (Francis, 2005: p493). The condition of critical period in language acquisition is the only one that is used in making a clear hypothesis; in this case, bilingualism in childhood is not a contributing factor to language deficiency in any way. This hypothesis, however, is sufficient in discussing the educational significance of this article, which is that it offers another way in which to consider the outcomes of learning a second language for children. The hypothesis as stated is also measurable through a review of earlier studies and comparing their results to either confirm it or refute it and make a new one. The variables are clearly stated with first language attrition being the dependent variable, while critical periods, access to universal grammar, and language ability are used are the independent variables (Francis, 2005: p493). There is no mention of confounding variables in the study. The major characteristic of the research field from which the author samples the research article is well described. In this case, the articles are culled from studies dealing with bilingualism and first language attrition, although there is no mention of how many articles were considered (Francis, 2005: p492). The selection of the sample articles was also described as those articles that tend towards the brain’s language faculties being equipped to handle bilingualism and also multi-lingualism. There is no discussion about the reliability and validity of the data presented by the different authors and researchers, which also has an effect on the results since its validity and reliability is also put into question. The sample selection is not representative because the articles reviewed were not selected at random, but rather, according to the exact topic that the researcher wanted to study. It is this action that could have resulted in the absence of seminal works in this area of study. The size of the sample, in this case the number of articles used in the research, was not stated, and it is up to the reader to determine the sample size manually. The research design used was a historical research design just as in the earlier research article. The author correctly used this research design because it allowed him to describe research findings up to the point at which he conducted the research, as well as to examine the findings with the view of understanding current effects of bilingualism in American schools (Francis, 2005: p494). It also helps to anticipate the future effect of continued bilingualism as the study of a second language becomes more widespread in the United States, while enabling the researcher to test his hypothesis using a comparative analysis from the findings of these articles. The procedure used in comparing these research findings is, however, not provided with the only mention being that the researcher will contrast different modularities that that underlie the debate on bilingualism’s effects on first language attrition. The researcher also failed to account for confounding variables that could not be controlled for in this study. Descriptive statistics are presented at the end of every section dealing with the independent variables’ relationship to the dependent variable, which lead to the researcher refuting the hypothesis. Instead, the research results show that bilingualism has a significant effect on language deficiency during childhood (Francis, 2005: p523). References Francis, N. (2005). Research findings on early first language attrition: implications for the discussion on critical periods in language acquisition. Language Learning: a Journal of Research in Language Studies (Estados Unidos). 55(3), 491–531 Ramirez, C. M. (1987). Developmental linguistic interdependence and bilingual education: Cummins and beyond. International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 63(1987), 81-98. Schmid, M. S. (2013). First language attrition. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism. 3(1), 94-115. Weltens, B., De Bot, K., & Els, T. V. (2009). Language attrition in progress. Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Foris Publications. Read More