Word Order, Negation Constructions and Interrogatives in the German Language - Essay Example

German Syntax 0 Introduction German, spoken by around 95 million people throughout the world, is the national language of Germany, Austria and Liechtenstein, and is also an official language in Switzerland and Luxemburg. In specific regions of Italy, Belgium and Denmark, German is also an official language (Fagan 1). The type of German used in textbooks and dictionaries is the Standard variety and is the variety that is taught in schools (Fagan 1). Standard German is therefore the variety used in this paper, which will provide a brief discussion on German syntax in terms of word order, nagation and interrogatives. This paper will be divided into sections starting discussing the word order (2.0), negation constructions (3.0) and finally interrogatives in German language (4.0). The sources where the examples were extracted were not fully glossed in the original sources, therefore the glosses that have been interpreted will be identified with my initials. (J.N) 2.0 Word Order German is considered an SVO language (Fagan 146), which means that the underlying word order is Subject-Verb-Object in a phrase. 1) Seine Mutter trinkt Whisky. [subj-his mother] [verb-drink] [obj-whisky] His mother drinks whisky. (Collins 175) Sentence 1 demonstrates the most common word order in German; it is a declarative sentence and has only one main clause (Weyerts et al. 216). So the verb is in second position in a sentence that is complete and can stand alone; in other words in an independent clause. Weyerts et al. claim that “it is always a finite verb or auxiliary that appears in second position, and it only appears there in main clauses” (216). Double clause sentences are constructed in a similar way. If two independent or main clauses are joined with a conjunction, the word order remains as SVO in both clauses. Sentence 2 is an example of two independent clauses joined with a conjunction. 2) Wir wollten ins Kino, aber wir hatten [subj-we] [verb-wanted] [indir. obj- to cinema] [conj-but] [subj-we] [verb-had] kein Geld [direct obj-no money] We wanted to go to the cinema, but we had no money. (Collins 168) (J.N) This shows strict adherence to the SVO clause structure and with the inclusion of conjunction aber, forms a double clause sentence. In subordinate or dependent clauses however, the word order changes to SOV and the verb follows the object as illustrated in sentence 3. 3) Ich benutzte das Werkzeug das ich dir gab. [subj-I] [verb-used] [obj-the tool] [com-that][sub-I] [obj-you] [verb-gave] I used the tool that I gave you. (Monaghan, Gonitzke & Chater 816) In sentence 3, the first or main clause follows the subject-verb-object order but because the second clause cannot stand alone and is dependent on the main clause the word order changes to subject-object-verb (Monaghan, Gonitzke & Chater 816). The SVO syntax becomes altered, however, when the sentence features an infinite verb. The infinite verb appears after the object as shown in sentence 4. 4) Er hat seine Meinung geδndert. [subj-he] [verb-has] [obj-his opinion] [verb inf-change] He has changed his opinion. (Monaghan, Gonitzke & Chater 816) The infinite verb in sentence 4 is ‘changed’ and has moved to the final position after the object. But, the finite verb ‘has’ stays in second position after the subject in main or independent clauses which is different to English as can be seen in the translation. Sentence 5 is an another example to illustrate this ordering. 5) Pauline hat die Aufgabe gelφs. [subj-Pauline] [verb-has] [obj-the task] [verb inf-solve] Pauline has solved the task. (Weyerts et al. 216) (J.N) Word ordering is more complicated when using an infinite verb in dependent or subordinate clauses. In these clauses, the finite verb moves and follows the infinite verb after the object. 6) Er kauft den Teppich da sie die alte [subj-he] [verb-buys] [obj-carpet] [comp-since] [subj-they] [obj-the old one] zerstort haben. [verb inf-destroy] [verb-have] He buys the carpet since they have destroyed the old one. (Monaghan, Gonitzke & Chater 816) Sentence 6 illustrates how instead of the finite verb being in second position and the infinite verb being in last position as seen in sentence 5, the finite verb has moved to the final position after both the object and the infinitive verb. Both verbs move and follow the object, but the infinite verb precedes the finite verb (Monaghan, Gonitzke & Chater 816). Another example of this ordering is 7) Der Lehrer bemerkte, daί Pauline die Aufgabe [subj-the teacher] [verb-realized] [comp-that] [subj-Pauline] [obj-the task] gelφst hat. [verb inf-solve] [verb-has] The teacher realized that Pauline has solved the task. (Weyerts et al. 216) (J.N) Sentence 7 includes a subject of the subordinate clause and further illustrates how the infinite verb follows the object and the finite verb follows the infinite verb. The word ordering of this sentence is therefore subject-verb-object-complement-subject-object-verb infinite-verb finite. In some sentences, the word ordering is inverted and the topic or focus of the sentence can be placed in first position. 8) Die Aufgabe hat Pauline gelφst. [obj-the task] [verb-has] [subj-Pauline] [verb inf-solve] Pauline has solved the task. (Weyerts et al. 216) (J.N) In sentence 8 ‘the task’ is the focus of the topic and is placed in first position followed by the finite verb, the subject and last the infinite verb. 3.0 Negation Negation in German is most often shown with the word ‘nicht’. For example, the positive sentence becomes negative. 9) Fritz ist nach Luckenbach gefahren [subj-Fritz] [verb-did] [obj-to Luckenbach] [verb inf-go] Fritz went to Luckenbach. 10) Fritz ist nicht nach Luckenbach gefahren [subj-Fritz] [verb-did] [neg-nicht] [obj-to Luckenbach] [verb inf-go] Fritz did not go to Luckenbach. (Schwarz & Bhatt 178) (J.N) Sentence 9 becomes a negative sentence by adding the negative marker ‘nicht’ after the finite verb ‘did’ as in sentence 10. The word order still remains as SVO in negative sentences, but with the negative marker preceding the object. This is subject to change however depending on the noun phrases included in the sentence, as shown the following examples. 11) Fritz hat Frage 3 beantwortet [subj-Fritz] [verb-has] [obj-question 3] [verb inf-answer] Fritz answered question 3. (Schwarz & Bhatt 179) (J.N) 12) *Fritz hat nicht Frage 3 beantwortet. [subj-Fritz] [verb-has] [neg-nicht] [obj-question 3] [verb inf-answer] Fritz did not answer question 3. (Schwarz & Bhatt 179) (J.N) 13) Fritz hat Frage 3 nicht beantwortet. [subj-Fritz] [verb-has] [obj-question 3] [neg-nicht] [verb inf-answer] Fritz did not answer question 3. (Schwarz & Bhatt 179) (J.N) Sentence 12, where the negative marker is placed between the verb and the object makes the sentence ungrammatical. The negative marker must be placed after the object and before the infinite verb, as in sentence 13. The reason for this according to Schwarz and Bhatt (179) is that the object is a definite noun phrase and therefore the negative marker is required to follow it. If on the other hand the object is an indefinite noun phrase, then a different negative marker is used. The negative marker ‘keine’ is used in sentence 15 because the object ‘a foreign language’ is indefinite. ‘Keine’ remains in the same position as ‘nicht’ and follows the verb and precedes the object. 14) Fritz kann eine Fremdsprache. [sub-Fritz] [verb-knows] [obj-foreign language] Fritz knows a foreign language. (Schwarz & Bhatt 179) (J.N) 15) Fritz kann keine Fremdsprache. [sub-Fritz] [verb-knows] [neg-keine] [obj-foreign language] Fritz doesn’t know a foreign language. (Schwarz & Bhatt 179) (J.N) Another negative used in German is ‘weder … noch’ which means ‘neither…nor’ and is used in sentences to negate two objects. The two parts of the negative, weder and noch, appear separately, each preceding an object in the sentence as in example 16. 16) Fritz hat weder Frage 3 noch Frage 4 [subj-fritz] [verb-has] [neg-neither][object-question 3] [neg-nor] [object-question 4] beantwortet. [verb inf- answer] Fritz answered neither question 3 nor question 4. (Schwarz & Bhatt 179) (J.N) Negative questions have a specific word order for negating where the negative does not move as a result of the other sentence parts, as illustrated in the following examples; 17a) Hat Fritz nicht Frage 3 beantwortet? [quest-has] [subj-Fritz] [neg-nicht] [ obj-question 3] [verb inf.answer] Didn’t Fritz answer question 3? (Schwarz & Bhatt 179) (J.N) 17b) Kann Fritz nicht eine Fremdsprache? [quest-knows] [subj-Fritz] [neg-nicht] [obj-a foreign language] Doesn’t Fritz know a foreign language? 17c) Hat Fritz nicht Frage 3 oder Frage 4 [quest-did] [subj-Fritz] [neg-nicht] [obj-question 3] [conj-or] [obj-question 4] beantwortet? [verb inf.answer] Didn’t Fritz answer question 3 or question 4? (Schwarz & Bhatt 180) (J.N) Sentences 17a-c all use the ‘nicht’ form to show negation. In all three examples, the negation is placed between the subject and the object no matter whether the object noun phrase is definite or indefinite. Therefore, the form does not change from ‘nicht’ when the negative is used within interrogative sentences. 4.0 Interrogatives Questions in German, as with in English, are of two main types, those that require a yes or no answer (yes-no questions) and those that require more than a yes or no answer in terms of further information (wh-questions) (Collins 182). 4.1 Yes-no questions In yes-no questions, the word order is VSO in German. In other words, the subject and verb change place in the same way as found in English. Sentence 18 provides a declarative sentence and sentence 19 illustrates the interrogative version of the same sentence. 18) Du magst ihn. [subj-you] [verb-like] [obj-him] You like him. 19) Magst du ihn? [verb-like] [subj-you] [obj-him] Do you like him? (Collins 182) 4.2 Wh-questions Wh- questions are also subject to a specific word order and feature wh-pronouns. These pronouns, however, change depending on case, and influence where they are positioned in sentences. The interrogative pronouns ‘wer’ ‘who’ and ‘was’ ‘what’, are only used in the singular form. The following chart shows the forms used in different case. Case People Things Nominative (subject of the verb) wer ‘who’ was ‘what’ Accusative (direct object of the verb) wen ‘whom’ was ‘what’ Genitive (possessive – something belongs to someone) wessen ‘those’ Dative (indirect object) wem ‘whom’ (Collins 89) Sentence 20 provides an example of the wh-pronoun in accusative case. The wh-pronoun in sentence 20 is the direct object of the sentence and is moved to front position. These wh-pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence in direct questions whether they represent the object or the subject (Collins 89). However, wh-pronoun is placed at the beginning of the subordinate clause in indirect questions as shown in sentence 21. 20) Wer hat es gemacht? [wh-pronoun-who] [verb-has] [subj-it] [verb inf-made] Who did it? (Collins 89) (J.N) 21) lch weiB nicht, wer es gemacht hat. [subj-I] [verb-know] [neg] [wh-pron-nom] [obj-it] [verb inf-done] [verb-has] I dont know who did it. (Collins 89) (J.N) Other wh-question words also take initial position within an interrogative sentence. Sentence 22 illustrates the way in which the interrogative adverb ‘wann’ meaning ‘when’ is placed in first position. 22) Wann hat sie Geburtstag? [wh-when] [verb-has] [subj-she] [obj-birthday] ‘When is her birthday? (Fagan 132) (J.N) In sentence 22 the interrogative adverb meaning ‘when’ is in first position with the verb-subject-object order (VSO) following. The declarative form of this sentence would be SVO as in sentence 23. Therefore, the subject and verb invert and change places in interrogatives. 23) Sie hat Geburtstag [subj-she] [verb-has] [obj-birthday] She has a birthday. 5.0 Conclusion This paper has discussed the word order, negation and interrogatives of German by providing examples within each area. Although the underlying word order of German is said to be SVO, there are many instances whereby this is not the case. In fact, German allows the verb to be in first, middle or final position in a sentence depending on whether the clause is independent or subordinate and whether the verb is finite or infinite. Negation is generally indicated by adding ‘nicht’, but the ‘keine’ forms are used instead with an indefinite article. Interrogative sentences are similar to English in terms of word order in yes-no questions but differ in some instances with wh-questions. References Collin Easy Learning German Grammar, Glasgow: Harper Collins Publishers. 2007. Fagan, Sarah M.B. German: A Linguistic Introduction. UK: Cambridge University Press. 2009. Monaghan, Padraic, Gonitzke, Markus & Chater, Nick. “Two Wrongs Make a Right: Learnability and Word Order Consistency”. In Alterman, Richard & Kirsch, David eds. Proceedings of the Twenty-Fifth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. July 31 – August, 2003. Boston, Massuachusetts, USA: Cognitive Science Society. 2003: 816-827. Schwarz, Bernhard & Bhatt, Rajesh. “Light Negation and Polarity”. In Zanuttini, Raffaella, Campos, Hector, Herburger, Elena and Portner,Paul, H. eds., Cross-Linguistic Research in Syntax and Semantics: Negation, Tense and Clausal Architecture, 175-198, Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Weyerts, Helga, Penke, Martina, Munte, Thomas, F., Heinze, Hans-Jochen & Clahsen, Harald. “Word Order in Sentence Processing: An Experimental Study of Verb Placement in German”, Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 31.3, (2002): 211-268. Read More