Grammatical Categories Need to Be Defined - Essay Example

English 26 October Grammar Answer the following five questions (about 2 page or less for each one), which are based on issues in chapters that we have previously covered. A) “It is important to distinguish two levels at which our grammatical categories need to be defined: the language-particular level and the general level.” (Huddleston, p.1) Explain, using examples of your own. Huddleston states that it is important to distinguish two levels at which our grammatical categories need to be defined. They are: the language particular level and the general level. Both of them help to learn a language and distinguish the difference either between various parts of speech or languages. Thus, the language particular-level provides us with the information about the distinctive characteristics of different categories used in English. This gives an opportunity to state that a word refers to a noun, verb, adjective, adverb, etc. For example, a verb has six grammatical categories: person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood. It is the only part of speech that may change according to tense. As for the general level, it gives an opportunity to analyze two or more languages and find their common features. This helps to simplify the process of learning by the usage of the same terms. There are nouns, adjectives, verbs in all the languages. They just sound in different ways. For example, when there are pronouns in English, the same part of speech is called Pronomen in German. B) Should pronouns be treated as a subclass of nouns, or as a separate word class? Why? Pronouns should be treated as a separate word class. The main reason is that both these parts of speech have different functions. A noun is applied in order to name substances and living beings. The same cannot be stated about pronouns. They do not name things, they only pointy out them. Moreover, English grammar would become more difficult if nouns and pronouns were the same part of speech. Thus, there are no special plural cases when we learn pronouns and the latter cannot be countable or uncountable. So, there is no need to change something in the traditional way to learn two separate parts of speech – nouns and pronouns. C) What are kernel clauses and what are the advantages of recognising the kernel vs non-kernel distinction? A kernel clause is a simple sentence that does not have any optional expression. It is indicative. This clause is unmarked in voice, mood, and polarity. It cannot be passive. For example: He threw a ball. Non-kernel clause is either negative or missing some element. Moreover, if there is an adjective, infinitive or gerund, it is also a non-kernel clause. For example: They saw him crossing the street. There is one major advantage of recognizing kernel and non-kernel clauses – this gives a significant simplification of grammar. D) Why is it important to systematically distinguish between grammatical class and grammatical function? Grammatical class is a grouping of words that are distinguished by common characteristics. For example, such words as dog, coat, man, and umbrella are nouns, because they name objects, have gender and number. They may have different grammatical function performed in a sentence. The latter helps to see the role of one and the same word in different contexts. That is why we should distinguish grammatical class and grammatical function. E) How does Huddleston's treatment of prepositions differ from that found in traditional grammars? What are the advantages (and disadvantages?) of Huddleston’s treatment? It is necessary to stress that Huddleston has another point of view upon prepositions. From his perspective, there are two types of propositions – they can refer either to coordinator or subordinator classes. That is why propositions are not secondary in English sentence; their function is very important. This part of speech often stands together with a verb – the principal member of a sentence. Moreover, proposition may function as one element in an utterance. The advantage of this theory is that it helps to have a deeper look at propositions. The disadvantage is that this theory will never be applied because it is not competitive with traditional one. Everyone still applies a traditional point of view upon prepositions. 2. Answer the following four questions (about 1/2 page for each one) A) “Tom does not behave like that for no reason”. This sentence is semantically positive (in Standard English) but syntactically negative. Explain. This sentence is semantically positive because it characterizes Tom from positive point of view. This means that the boy always controls his behavior and decisions. He is calm and patient. So, there is positive connotation in this sentence. However, it is negative syntactically because the utterance includes negative particle not in the combination with an auxiliary verb does. B) How does Huddleston’s treatment of (finite) subordinate clauses differ from the Traditional account (in which the categories are noun clauses/adjectival clauses/adverbial clauses). Huddleston’s treatment of finite subordinate clauses differs from the traditional account. He suggests analyzing the clause paying attention to the verb (either it is finite or non-finite). In this case there are other categories. Thus, finite clauses can be infinitival, present-participial and past-participal. C) What is the justification for analysing relative that as a subordinator rather than a pronoun? The major justification for analyzing relative that as a subordinator rather than a pronoun is that it frequently functions as a link a link connecting two clauses. Sometimes it functions as a subject in a subordinate clause. For example: Mary looked at the object that had captured her attention the day before yesterday. D) Choose one thematically marked construction and explain how its structure reflects thematic/informational factors. You do go to your neighbor just now, now I say. This sentence is thematically marked due to its structure. Firstly, it has the verb do, although it is not a question or negative sentence. This detail indicates that the speaker is irritated and orders somebody to interact with his/her neighbor because of some reason. The repetition of now helps us to guess that the speaker is already irritated and wants somebody to obey immediately. The speaker is impatient or something has happened to him/her and he/she wants to ask the neighbor for help. So, the structure of the above-mentioned sentence fully reflects the inner state of the speaker, his/her feelings and worries. 3. Is the negation in the following examples clausal or subclausal? Give supporting evidence -refer to both (if possible) the cohesive adjunct test and the tag test. A) Australians never quit. – It is subclausal because the sentence sounds incomplete and needs more details and explanation why Australians never quit. B) We are not happy. – This sentence is causal because it seems to be complete. C) We are unhappy. – This sentence is also cause because of the same reason as in the previous one. 4. Does the negative belong syntactically in the superordinate clause or the subordinate one, or ambiguously in either? Give supporting evidence - refer to both (if possible) the cohesive adjunct test and the tag test. A) Minhye seems not to have left – the negative belongs to the subordinate clause because this part of the sentence refers to the verb answering the question of the suprordinate clause (seems what?) B) David doesn’t want to go by himself – the negative belongs to the superordinate clause, because it follows the subject. C) You cannot vote in the election – the negative belongs to the superordinate clause, because it follows the subject of the sentence. 5. Consider the unbracketed clause in each of the following. (i) Classify each one as finite or non-finite, and if it is non-finite, further classify it as infinitival, present-participial or past-participial. (ii) Identify the type of construction in which it serves as an immediate constituent (e.g. NP, AdjP, clause). (iii) Identify its function within that construction (e.g. object, modifier, complement). a. [Thi plans] to cook Peter a cake – finite, NP clause, complement b. [We prevented him from] driving home – finite, NP, complement c. [I like my steak] marinated – non-finite (past-participial), NP, modifier d. [She is the right person] to contact – non-finite (infinitival), NP, modifier e. Travelling alone [is not a good idea] – finite, NP, complement f. [All streets] affected by the rain [have been closed] – finite, NP, modifier g. [Sebin is anxious] to identify every NP – non-finite (infinitival), NP, complement h. [I would like Yumiko] to be promoted – non-finite (past participle), NP, complement 6. Write out the subordinate clauses in each of the following, and classify each one as a restrictive relative clause, non-restrictive relative clause, comparative clause or content clause. A) The bird I saw was injured – a content clause B) If we attend you must too – a comparative clause C) Rodney, who lives in Brisbane, is my favorite grammarian – a restrictive relative clause. D) Hands up everyone who likes Rodney! – a non-restrictive relative clause. E) I’m uncertain if we’ll attend – a comparative clause D) I know what a rogue you are – a content clause 7. For each of the verbs declare, recall, think, ask, infer, explain, order, recommend, instruct, feel, wish, say whether it can take as complement a content clause that is (a) declarative, (b) exclamative, (c) interrogative, (d) jussive. Provide an illustrative example for each ‘yes’ answer. A) He is the only person who knows how to declare the truth. B) This person is the one who never declares the truth! C) Could you please tell me what is this person declaring? D) Go to him and declare the result immediately. A) I know why he has recalled his decision so quickly. B) Do not forget to ask why he has recalled his decision! C) Don’t you know that he has recalled his decision? D) Recall this decision. A) This woman is the only one in this hall who knows how to think analytically. B) Do not forget to think over this issue more thoroughly! C) Can you think over this issue more attentively? D) Think over this point more attentively A) Do not forget to ask him a question. B) Do not even try to avoid asking this question! C) Are you going to ask him this question? D) If you want to succeed, ask him this question. A) I infer his feelings are not fair. B) Do not ask me if I infer his feelings to be fair! C) Are you sure his feelings and thoughts can be inferred as the best ones in this situation? D) Do not infer this decision until you are sure. A) This person can explain everything to you immediately. B) Only this person can explain everything at once to you! C) Do you know that only this man is able to explain all these complicated details to do at once? C) Explain it to me. A) I want to order a big pizza. B) The only thing I want – to order a bid cheese pizza! C) Are you going to order a big cheese pizza for me? D) Order this pizza through internet. A) I can only recommend staying at home for a couple of days in this situation. B) The only reasonable advice of mine is to recommend staying at home for a couple of days! C) Are sure that it is better to recommend me staying at home for all this time? D) recommend him this hospital. A) There is no use to instruct this silly and inattentive girl so much time. B) Do not waste time on instructing this girl! She does not understand all these things! C) Do you know that there is no use of instructing this girl so much time? D) Instruct this woman just now. A) I feel enormous fear and thirst at the same time. B) You have no right to tell me that as I feel being accused in all sins now! C) Do not you feel what to do by means of intuition? D) A) Barbara wishes to meet that ridiculous woman as soon as possible. B) I wish to create this project myself, that’s all! C) Do you wish to tell this information to him yourself? D) A) I say that only this situation will lead to positive result. B) I say: do it as soon as possible! C) Do you say his sister lives in London? D) Say that you love him very much. 8. Say why each of the following does not have a passive counterpart. A) Hayley will visit next Friday. – The sentence is not passive because Hayley is the subject of action, but not the object. The subject is active. B) Hayley is a winner. – Here the verb to be indicates that there is no passive construction in the sentence. C) Put it on the table! – Imperative mood is not applied to form passive constructions. So, this sentence is also active. 9. Suggest plausible motivations for the selection of the agentless passive construction in the following. A) [The locusts arrived] and the crops were devoured. – As a rule, crops cannot be devoured themselves, without outside help. That is why they cannot be the subject of the action. Thus, it is necessary to apply a passive construction in this sentence. B) The effect on the cells was observed for ten days. – In this sentence it is important for the author to emphasize the importance of the effect. That is why it occupies the first place in the sentence and becomes a part of a passive construction. C) Trespassing is forbidden. – As a rule, any type of trespassing is forbidden by authorities having the right to do that. Common people are not able to change something in this situation. This meaning is given to the sentence with the help of passive construction. D) The cathedral was completed in 1753. – The cathedral cannot be completed without any help. It is necessary to apply human force and various equipment to do everything necessary to complete the cathedral. That is why this sentence includes a passive construction. 10. Give existential counterparts for those of the following which have one, and say why the others do not. A) Someone is on the bridge. It is impossible to create an existential counterpart in this case, because someone is already indefinite and it cannot be changed. B) Bill is on the bridge – Someone is on the bridge. C) Nothing is missing. – There can be no existential counterpart because of the word nothing. It cannot be replaced here. 11. Give the unmarked, non-cleft, counterpart of the following. A) It is Saad who showed us the way - counterpart B) Where was it who showed us the way? – unmarked C) It is not the roof that is leaking – non-cleft 12. Say whether the following it sentences belong to the extrapositioned construction, or to the cleft construction, or to neither. A) It is Wednesday. – neither of them B) It is Wednesday that he prefers. – cleft construction C) It is Wednesday, the day that he prefers – extrapositioned construction D) It is clear that he prefers Wednesday – cleft construction E) It’s your job to mow the lawn. - neither of them F) It’s you who should mow the lawn 13. Are the coordinations in the following sentences grammatically replaceable by each one of the elements? If not, why not? A) Rodney and Kim were in love. – In this sentence the coordination can be replaced. For instance, it is possible to say: “Rodney was in love with Kim” or ‘Kim was in love with Rodney.” However, the meaning of the sentence will change a bit in this case. B) Rodney and Kim kissed. – There are two more variants of this sentence. They are: 1) Rodney kissed Kim. 2) Kim kissed Rodney. C) Rodney and Kim hugged each other. – Here it is impossible to change coordination because in this case the meaning of the sentence also will change completely. The action is mutual, but if we change the coordination only one of the characters will perform an action. 14. Discuss the effect of reversing the coordinated elements in the following. A) Win the lottery and you’ll never have to work again. – Here to clauses are linked with the help of a coordinated element in order to make one sentence. B) Jason prefers peaches and cream. – In this sentence a coordinating element links two objects (peaches and cream) together. C) I jumped on the table and I couldn’t get down. – Here a coordinating element connects two parts of one sentence. 15. Construct example sentences containing coordinations of: A) PP + AdvP The best friend of his is the most intelligent one. B) AdjP + subordinate clause The most intelligent person in this hall, who was standing in the middle of the crowd, had suggested his assistance practically at once. 16. Construct example sentences containing coordinations in the following positions: a. NP structure: (i) pre-head modifier (ii) complement b. clause structure: (i) indirect object (ii) predicative comp c. AdjP structure: (i) head (ii) post-head modifier 1) My handsome uncle does not like boring movies. 2) She gave an interesting book to read to this guy who was so handsome. 3) He is a marvelous teacher, understanding all our needs and feelings. Works Cited Huddleston, Rodney. English Grammar: an Outline. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Print. Read More