Origins of Language Disabilities in Primary Students - Essay Example

The Genetic and Environmental Origins of Language Disabilities in Primary It is essential to investigate the root causes of language disabilities in primary students to determine whether they are of genetic or environmental origin. These investigations help researchers advise educators on solutions to overcome disabilities and develop in a normal way. Genetics is a predetermined component; studying genetic factors helps identify difficulties early and sets children on a path to academic success. Environmental influences such as socioeconomic status, home emphasis upon speech and reading, and the classroom also influence development of language. Examining each of these factors allows educators to approach learning disabilities from different angles. There is a connection between speech difficulties and reading difficulties (DeThorne, et al., 2006; Spinath, et al., 2004; Feagans and Appelbaum, 1986). In early elementary years, students sound out words; if they cannot use verbal language well, reading comprehension suffers. Recognition of letter names is an indicator of future reading ability, along with the child’s ability to write his or her name (Share, 1984). Three levels of language use work in young children: syntactic (the general construction of written or verbal language); semantic (the meanings of words and their relationships which arrive at sense from the written or verbal); and discursive (how syntax and semantics go together to form a narrative) (Feagans and Appelbaum, 1986). Narrative is the transmission of information using words and sentences, and may be the most important (and most difficult) item to measure. Identifying children who are not developing normal speech patterns is the first step to seeing a problem with language. Once the child is identified, it is helpful to know if the problem is genetic or if environmental factors are at work. Assessment Mechanisms Used in Studies Researchers look at large populations of similar children and gather information through assessment mechanisms. In the articles examined for this essay, different assessment mechanisms are used by researchers. Share, et al. (1984) point out that assessments are often poorly validated or poorly designed, and the time it takes to administer long questionnaires reduces the size of the population measured. Teacher assessments might seem like a good way to find out about learning disabilities, but teachers possess varying skill levels in recognizing learning problems (Kenny and Chekaluk, 1993). Parent questionnaires must be worded carefully, and can also be highly inaccurate (Share, et al., 1984; DeThorne, et al., 2006). Standardized assessment tests such as the Slingerland Screening and Pre-Reading Screening Procedures have been validated (Fulmer and Fulmer, 1983), and so are accurate predictors of difficulties for students in early elementary years. As screening tests, the two assessments may be administered to all students to measure problems. DeThorne, et al. (2006) used parent reports of children’s language difficulties along with researcher home visits conducted during the Western Reserve Reading Project (WRRP) in Ohio. The children took an intelligence test as part of the WRRP. In the Sideridis (2002) study, the researcher administered a questionnaire to elementary students to measure levels of motivation compared to scores in reading and spelling. Share, et al. (1984) administered a huge battery of tests and included teacher and parent reports, and focused on environmental questions such as parent reading, television watching, and parent education. Kenny and Chukaluk (1993) administered a battery of tests to compare teacher assessments with empirical data-gathering methods. Genetic Factors Influencing Language Disabilities One of the best ways to test the influence of genetics and environment is to look at siblings—and twins are absolutely the easiest. Twin studies determine how genetics contributes to learning disabilities. By looking at behavior and academic success between twins, environmental factors can more easily be eliminated. A limitation to twin studies is that they experience a variety of factors which could cause them developmental delays, such as low birth weight or premature birth (Spinath, et al., 2004). This might skew findings of studies involving twins. DeThorne, et al. (2006) point out that conclusions drawn from twin studies should always be looked at in terms of the population measured: age, socioeconomic status, types of disability, etc. When researchers generalize between studies parameters must be similar for good conclusions to be drawn. Studies which have control groups produce more accurate results; twin studies have a highly similar control subject for comparison. Spinath, et al. (2004) conducted a follow up study performed in the U.K. in the mid-1990s to track language difficulties for a population of twins. They found genetics influences language disability more than it does language ability, and this indicates an area which may require further research. The finding indicates there is a fundamental genetic component to disability as opposed to delay in language learning. They propose investigating siblings of twins to find out if postnatal environment is a bigger influence than twin studies would suggest. DeThorne (2006) found that the more difficulties in speech a child had, the more difficulty they had in reading comprehension, and the longer the history of difficulties, the more reading comprehension was affected. Affirmation of these hypotheses makes sense, and affirming that there is a genetic component supports the idea that learning disabilities run in families and if not addressed, can significantly impact academic success. This is especially true for closely related siblings. The results of these studies suggest there are genetic origins to speech and language difficulties, but the affects of environment cannot be completely ruled out. Environmental Factors Influencing Language Disabilities Spinath, et al. (2004) state, “[The] greatest effect on language disability and ability in early childhood is shared environmental influence” (p. 452). Recognizing there is a genetic predisposition for language disability is important because some children may be at greater risk than others, but the environment in which a child is raised and/or schooled has a bigger impact on risk and success. The environment can be addressed and changed, whereas genetics cannot; genetics can only be compensated for by teaching children skills to overcome inborn difficulties. Share, et al. (1984) found peer ability was a predictor of individual academic achievement, meaning that classroom environment tends to mediate between high succeeding and lower succeeding children. This is interesting to educators because general classroom improvements and interventions can approach language difficulties for lower-success students. If the general classroom is supportive of children with all levels of language ability, those with lower ability benefit. A child’s environment affects perceptions of ability. Children with learning disabilities encounter frustration with success, which significantly impacts motivation as they progress through school (Sideridis, 2002). Students with high language abilities feel in control of learning outcomes and perceive themselves as able to meet goals. In contrast, children at risk for language difficulties feel out of control. Sideridis acknowledges attitudes are difficult to measure, but the correlation between perceptions and actual difficulties is clear. If a child perceives he or she has a problem, most likely any problems they encounter will be made worse. So, if the problem is genetic, a supportive environment affects outcomes for children so they develop in more normal ways. Conclusion and Recommendations Language difficulties harm children’s academic progress, making it difficult for them to succeed as they advance in school. If teachers know whether language disabilities are genetic, they can teach students skills to compensate for how their brains actually function, helping them to cope with the world. If teachers know language disabilities are caused by environmental factors, they can change the environment and help children overcome negative factors. Early elementary interventions help students overcome both genetic and environmental causes of learning disabilities; though interventions will not “cure” genetically-based disabilities, they produce more functional children who progress with non-disabled peers and teach them skills to compensate. One way to approach the frustration a language disabled child feels is through understanding the child’s use of narrative, semantics, and syntax (Feagans and Appelbaum, 1986). Talking is an excellent way to develop narrative skills in younger children. Dudley-Marling and Searle (1988) developed guidelines for elementary teachers which are still good advice. The guidelines might seem counterintuitive: promote talking in the classroom. Quiet is enforced throughout the school, but allowing students to talk during problem solving and learning helps them exercise verbal language. The teacher should look for opportunities to use language within the context of learning. Discussion is different from talking; expanding the child’s talking opportunities beyond the classroom is important. Audiences from same-grade classrooms, younger or older students, and adults make wonderful supporting audiences. These guidelines can easily be expanded to apply to written language, and they develop reading skills by verbalizing language outside of the confines of the written page. Though they will not address every aspect of language difficulty, these guidelines are applicable in the general classroom. How genetics and environment combine to produce learning disabilities is a question which is worthwhile to study. Understanding that genetics may predispose children to difficulties allows researchers and teachers to recognize potential problems before they continue. Environmental factors including home and school are the laboratory in which a child develops, making them more important—and more easily adjusted—influences in the overall assessment of learning disabilities. References DeThorne, L., Hart, S., Prefrill, S., Deater-Deckard, K., Thompson, L., Schatschneider, C., et al. (2006). Children’s history of speech-language difficulties: Genetic influences and associations with reading-related measures. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 49(6), 1280-1293. Dudley-Marling, C., and Searle, D. (1988). Enriching language learning environments for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21(3), 140-143. Feagans, L., and Appelbaum, M. (1986). Validation of language subtypes in learning disabled children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78(5), 358-364. Fulmer, S., and Fulmer, R. (1983). The Slingerland tests: Reliability and validity. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 16(10), 591-595. Kenny, D., and Chekaluk, E. (1993). Early reading performance: A comparison of teacher-based and test-based assessments. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26(4), 227-236. Share, D., Jorm, A., Maclean, R., and Matthews, R. (1984). Sources of individual differences in reading acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(6), 1309-1324. Sideridis, G. (2002). Goal importance and students at risk of having language difficulties: An underexplored aspect of student motivation. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(4), 343-356. Spinath, F., Price, T., Dale, P., and Plomin, R. (2004). The genetic and environmental origins of language disability and ability. Child Development, 75(2), 445-454. Read More