Types and Causes of Communication Impairment - Essay Example

Current Approaches to the Successful Education of Children with Communication Disorders INTRODUCTION Communication impairments affect approximately 10% of children worldwide and have a very significant impact on education (see http://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/health/info/speech/diagnose/communication tm). In recent years, researchers and educators have made great strides in determining the causes of communication impairment and effective interventions and educational approaches that may maximise communication skills. Among these approaches are inclusive classrooms that utilize novel educational tools to mainstream many students with communication disorders to enhance their educational and social development. I. Types and Causes of Communication Impairment Communication disorders encompass a broad spectrum of impairments that may affect speech, hearing and language (Lue, 2001). Mild forms of impairment include stuttering and difficulties with speech articulation and pronunciation. More severe communication disorders include aphasia, the inability to speak as well as severe auditory impairment and neurological disorders that affect verbal Communication (Chakrabarti & Fombonne, 2001) Among the documented causes of communication disorders are (Learning Disabilities Association of America, 2006): Mental retardation, from Cri-du-chat, Gilles du Tourette and others; Brain injury, including cerebral palsy; Mental retardation; Structural abnormalities of the mouth or face; Hearing loss or impairment; Psychiatric or emotional disorders, including schizophrenia and autism; Developmental disorders; Ischaemic injury such as stroke; Dementia; Excessive alcohol; Emotional or behavioural disorders. Neurological disorders. In many individual cases, however, the cause of communication disorders cannot be precisely identified. “The factors that cause children not to speak are extremely varied. They cannot be reduced to psychological conflict. Nor should we be content to seek an explanation in the neurological side effects of trauma or cognitive failures. All these play some part, but the surest way to bypass a real understanding is to seize upon a single kind of explanation to the exclusion of all others” (Danon-Boileau, 2001, p .2). Disorders of speech The acquisition of speech involves developmental processes that occur in the early years of life, and require the coordinated use of musculature of the mouth, jaw, neck, chest and abdomen (Lue, 2001). It is estimated that, by the age of 5 years, 5% of children have speech disorders, usually of unknown aetiology (Danon-Boileau, 2001, p.32). The more common disorders of speech include (Lue, 2001). Dysfluency, characterized by uneven or interrupted flow of speech. Stuttering is the most severe dysfluency that generally occurs during the process of speech development between 2 and 6 years and frequently, but not always, disappears after this developmental stage. The most common dysfluency of childhood is disarticulation, which involves a failure to pronounce certain sounds appropriately. Disarticulations are a normal part of speech development; however, when they persist beyond the age of 4 or 5 years, intervention may be required. Symptoms of dysfluency include (Lue, 2001): Speech deficit such as stuttering, word repetitions, mumbling; Frustration and/or embarrassment in speaking. Symptoms of articulation deficiencies may include (Lue, 2001): Unintelligible speech (age 3 years) Mispronunciation of consonants or vowels (age 4 years) Distortions and abnormal or absent word patterns Voice disorders involve abnormalities of the pitch, loudness or cadence of speech. This may make communication very difficult, and is often associated with hearing Impairments. Voice sounds are produced by the flow of air from the lungs to vibrate the vocal cords. Voice disorders result from abnormalities in this process, which may result from vocal cord dysfunction. Symptoms of voice disorders involve abnormal pitch, loudness or word or syllable emphasis in speech patterns. Disorders of Language Language is defined as the verbal expression of symbolic and concrete thoughts that originate in the brain and comprises a primary mode of communication among humans (Chakrabarti & Fombonne, 2001). Disorders of language may involve the inability to express verbal communication of ideas (aphasia) or the inability to comprehend or interpret verbal expression. Thus, language disorders include deficits of content interpretation, word usage or the use of language to communicate with others. The aetiology of language disorders generally differs in adults and children (Chakrabarti & Fombonne, 2001). The primary causes of language disorders in children include (Chakrabarti & Fombonne, 2001) Developmental disability; Brain injury. The primary causes of language disorders in adults include (Chakrabarti & Fombonne, 2001): Brain damage due to stroke or other physical or ischemic injury; Brain tumors; Dementia; Residual effects of developmental disorders or autism. The consequences of language Impairment often differ in adults and children since, in adults, the deficit represents a loss of function, whereas, in children, language disorders generally disrupt the developing process of acquiring language skills (Chakrabarti & Fombonne, 2001) There are several general types of language disorders that are discussed below. Aphasia Aphasia is defined as the loss of the ability to speak in an individual who previously was capable of verbal communication (Barrett, 1999, p.20). It may be the result of brain injury, stroke or brain tumors. The four types of aphasia include: Expressive: inability to verbalise thoughts or ideas in speech; Receptive: inability to interpret language that can be heard; Anomic: difficulty in choosing appropriate words to express thoughts or ideas; Global: pervasive inability to speak, interpret language, read or write. Delayed Language Delayed language refers to a developmental lag in the acquisition of language (Barrett, 1999, p.22.). This may occur either in the area of expression and/or interpretation of language. Among the symptoms of delayed language are: Limited vocabulary; Lack of expressive speech; Improper word usage; Inability to understand speech or follow directions; Difficulties in communicating effectively with others. Disorders of Auditory Processing The process of hearing or auditory processing involves the interpretation of sounds that travel through the myriad structures of the ear as vibrations that are interpreted as language by the brain once they are converted to electrochemical signals (Chakrabarti & Fombonne, 2001) Auditory processing disorders (APDs) involve the inability to interpret or discriminate between language sounds. Auditory processing disorders may occur in the context of normal hearing function and normal intelligence levels; however, cognitive or structural hearing deficits may also result in an inability to comprehend language, though the aetiology has different origins. Symptoms of APD include (Chakrabarti & Fombonne, 2001): Poor listening skills Inability to follow directions; Poor academic skills, especially in reading, spelling and vocabulary. Behavioural problems; Expressive difficulties.   II. The Verbal Student with Qualitatively or Quantitatively Impaired Expressive and/or Receptive Speech Ability Impairments of expressive and/or receptive speech are defined as deficits in the ability to express thoughts and ideas verbally and/or to comprehend or interpret verbally expressed ideas (Barret, 1999. 52). Impairments of this type may be detected in verbal students by qualitative or quantitative assessments. Qualitative difficulties in expression may include difficulties in expressing ideas, limited vocabulary, and inappropriate language usage (Chakrabarti & Fombonne, 2001). Receptive difficulties may be qualitatively assessed by noting problems in following directions or responding appropriately in conversation. Quantitative assessments include IQ testing of verbal skills and standardized behavioural tests (Chakrabarti & Fombonne, 2001). Other important assessments with quanitative and qualitative components include the DSM-IV classification of this type of language disorder as a Mixed Receptive-Expressive language disorder with the following characteristics (Barrett, 1999, p.12): Low scores on standardized assessment of non-verbal language skills administered on an individual basis by a qualified therapist; Language deficits negatively impact academic achievement and communication skills; Assessment indicates the absence of a pervasive developmental disorder. Identified symptoms of expressive/receptive language disorder include (Barrett, 1999, p.15): Deficits in sensory information processing skills; Poor conversation skills; Deficits in auditory processing in temporal lobe associated with poor verbal discrimination and association skills; Poor phonological skills; Memory impairment. Associated co-present disorders may include ADD/ADHD, neurological coordination disorders. Clinical assessments must be made by qualified psychotherapists, psychiatrists or child development specialists (Hall, Oyer & Haas, 2001). Also, a cautionary note is postulated that children from bi-lingual or non-English speaking cultural environments may have language difficulties with English that may be misdiagnosed as a language disorder. Clinicians generally agree that speech impairments of this type manifest before the age of 4 years (Downing, 1996, p.70). Often the causes are unknown; however, brain trauma in early childhood or at any age may produce this type of impairment. Researchers have noted that language disorders in children are not static, unchanging deficit; rather, there is enormous plasticity in developmental processes (Hall, Oyer & Haas, 2001). Although these deficits may negatively impact the learning process and socialization, with appropriate intervention and later stage development, many children reach equity with their peers at later stages of primary and secondary school. Receptive language disorders Clearly, receptive language disorders significantly impact a child’s capacity to learn. Though most children with this disorder have normal intelligence, the inability to comprehend and interpret verbal messages greatly affects the learning process (Hall, Oyer & Haas, 2001). In severe cases, receptive language disorders present with echolalia, the repetition of statements in the absence of understanding. There are a number of associated traits observed in children with receptive language disorders that may interfere with the ability to learn; among these are (Downing, 1996, p.86): Inability to follow directions due to lack of comprehension of verbal information; Difficulties in group discussions; Difficulty in interpreting and answering questions; Limited attention span; Poor communication skills; Language deficits; Limited vocabulary; Difficulties in socialization with peers; Reading comprehension difficulties; Problems with written and oral expression. Expressive language disorders Expressive language disorders negatively impact a child’s ability to communicate his ideas and feelings to others in speech (Hall, Oyer & Haas, 2001). This deficit may affect a child’s ability to learn, as verbal expression is one of the most important ways to communicate understanding and comprehension. These children have difficulties with oral expression, written expression and socialization. Among the observed difficulties experienced by these children are: Inability to express one’s understanding of coursework; Failure to speak and communicate effectively with others; Limited vocabulary; Poor writing skills; Affect of developmental delay or lack of cognition; Poor socialization with peers; Language disorder affects verbalization affecting sentence structure and word usage. While many of the observed difficulties are similar for children with receptive and expressive language disorders, the nature of these disorders is fundamentally different (Isaki, Spaulding & Plante, 2008). It should be noted, however, that some children have symptoms of both expressive and receptive deficits. Effective Educational Approaches Once a child has been diagnosed with a receptive and/or expressive language disorder, it is important to implement teaching strategies that address the language deficit and facilitate maximum learning potential. “Preverbal and non-speaking children are able to share an experience, recount an event, and tell a story in collaboration with an intimate adult who provides the words. These children's narrative expressions take the form of gestures, sounds not recognizable as standard language, the combination of sounds and gestures, and sequenced actions. These narrative forms are understood by the parent or intimate adult because child and adult dwell within a shared narrative matrix, defined by personal, social, temporal, and spatial aspects of life together” Ellis, 2007, p.113). Among the general strategies that have produced successful results are (Marquardt & Gillam, 1999): Permitting the child to sit near the teacher to maximize effective verbal and non-verbal communication; Eye contact is critical in verbal communication; Use simple language and straightforward sentence structure; Always speak slowly to facilitate verbal comprehension; Children with severe disorders of language may benefit from repetition, gestures, modeling and other non-verbal approaches to communication. In regard to receptive language disorders specifically, the following approaches are important (Isaki, Spaulding & Plante, 2008): Use of gestures, pictorial representations and repetition; Simple clear sentences using simple vocabulary; Teaching approaches that maximize student participation and attention; Emphasis on visualization; Minimal classroom noise and distraction; Development of listening and memory skills. In regard to expressive language disorders specifically, the following approaches are important (Isaki, Spaulding & Plante, 2008). Structured classroom environment that emphasizes non-verbal sensory interactions in association with the development of language skills through verbalisation; Vocabulary enhancement by concrete and tactile interactions; Emphasis on sentence structure and correct grammar; Role playing to maximize opportunities for verbal expression. III. AAC: Alternative and augmentative Communication systems • Low Technical systems • Hi Technical Systems AACs may be defined generally to include all systems and devices that aid communication (Ellis, 2007). The development and implementation of augmentative and alternative communication systems (AACs) have progressed dramatically over the past decade and continue to generate innovative strategies to compensate for communication disorder deficits. These devices were originally designed to assist individuals who were incapable of speech (Marquardt & Gillam, 1999). However, their use has been expanded to cover a wide range of language and speech deficits in the form of augmentative remediation. This is one of the most important strategies for improving communication in individuals with cognitive linguistic disorders or oral speech deficits. Researchers stress, however, that the technology must be incorporated into a multi-faceted therapeutic and supportive environment in order to maximize their therapeutic benefit. In this context, the use of AACs may promote greater educational advancement, improved socialization and family life, increased independence and personal opportunities. “Today, as augmented speakers are becoming members of advocacy groups and speaking up at family meetings or employment seminars, we should be reading about their experiences and changing our policies, treatment approaches, and device designs appropriately” (Fried-Oken & Bersani, 2002, p.17). AACs represent important assistance tools for communication in individuals with a wide range of disabilities, including physical limitations resulting from cerebral palsy and communication deficits associated with autism (Fried-Oken & Bersani, 2002). Among the conditions that may necessitate AAC are: Cerebral palsy; Brain damage or injury; Muscular dystrophy; Mental retardation; Stroke; Guillian-Barre syndrome Multiple sclerosis; Deafness; Spinal cord injury. Researchers stress that children with communication disorders should receive AAC intervention at the earliest possible age to enhance the development of communication skills (Bingham, Spooner & Browder, 2007). .AAC intervention requires the appropriate assessment to maximize the use of the most effective tools to address an individual’s specific needs. Low-tech AAC tools include simple devices that do not require machines or electricity such as picture or alphabet word cards to assist communication (Soto & Hartman, 2006). These are classified as unaided AAC devices. These simple tools can be tailored to individual needs and are inexpensive and easy to use. Among the low-tech AAC tools are: Objects for visualization; Pictures, photographs, books; Symbols and charts; Word or phrase cards; Eye communication via code or ETRAN frames for eye-pointing. The advantages of low-tech options include their relative inexpense and relative ease of implementation. Young children with communication disorders may be taught sign language to facilitate communication. Other low-tech AACs involve the use of pictorial images including picture communication symbols (PCS) and Pictorial exchange communication system (PECS) to facilitate word-object associations and wordless communication. The disadvantage of the low-tech devices and tools as that they provide only limited and very basic language augmentation (Glennen, 1997). High-tech devices include electronically powered tools, including computerised systems or and voice output communication aids (VOCA) may be useful for severely disabled individuals (see http://www.abilityhub.com/mouse/touchscreen.htm). The advantage of hi-tech systems is that there is access to greater alternative verbal resources, including thousands of vocabulary words and speaking devices that facilitate more complex modes of communication. These are classified as aided AAC devices. A partial list of high-tech AAC devices follows: Pointer boards (electically powered); Recording devices; Speaking toys or books; Single messaging devices; Computerised devices customized to address specific communication needs. VOCA devices may employ a dynamic display system that opens new pages on the computer in sequence depending on user input or another system called Minspeak or semantic compaction that accesses vocabulary rapidly using a sequence of user activated buttons. These systems use symbols to retrieve words. The disadvantage of these systems is that they are slow operating and are expensive.   Research studies on the outcome of clinical use of AAC devices indicate that these approaches facilitate speech development in children (Soto & Hartman, 2006). In particular, VOCA devices have produced significant results in children with language disorders. It is critical that the appropriate AAC is chosen to suit the needs of individuals with specific language or communication deficits. Among the important factors that must be considered are (Soto & Hartman, 2006): Access: hand movements may not be possible for some individuals who must access equipment by eye movements. Language system: There are many choices currently available, including picture communications symbols (PCS), PECS (Picture Exchange Communication System) or letters and words. Potential for long-term use: device should be adaprtable for upgrades and additions to accommodate the evolving needs of the student. Device should be durable, easy to use and portable, if possible. Among the areas of AAC that require research are (Soto & Hartman, 2006): Use of AAC as a tool for understanding the aetiological basis of communication disorders; Development of improved AAC approaches and devices; Measurement of communication enhancement for individuals who use these devices. IV. Issues faced by non-verbal students, their families, carers, and teachers Constraints of intellectual and physical ability The inability to communicate directly and effectively has profound effects on every aspect of an individual’s life, including intellectual and physical activities, socialization and personal development (Isaki, Spaulding & Plante, 2008). Many who are afflicted with this type of disorder experience feelings of loneliness, isolation and frustration in their attempts to communicate verbally with others. This may result in depression and hopelessness as the individual despairs of achieving meaningful interactions with others and a successful occupational life. It is difficult for those who communicate without difficulty to understand this experience. It is also a challenge to provide support to those who may suffer from communication disorders. The time intent and ability of communication partners (adults and peers) Clinical research studies have indicated that parents often have difficulty in dealing with the challenges of raising a child with a communication disorder (Friehe, Bloedow, & Hesse). These studies suggest that it is important for the parent to maintain an optimistic outlook and to have confidence in the child and his/her future (Haynes, Moran, & Pindzola. 2006). Of great importance is the support network provided by teachers, counselors, therapists and physicians to help parents and families cope with special needs children (Hall, Oyer & Haas, 2001). Psychologists emphasise that the initial responses of parents upon learning of a child’s disability is often shock and grief. If there is inadequate support, these initial reactions may crystallize to a long-term depression that may lead to family dysfunction. Intervention programs that stress coping strategies are essential to maintaining strong family support in dealing with the ongoing challenges of raising a special needs child. Coping with the reality of communication disorders may be especially difficult, in that verbal communication between parents and children comprises a fundamental component of the parent-child relationship. An important resource for teachers and therapists are graduate programs that focus on rehabilitation counseling that emphasizes psychosocial issues as they relate to an individual’s adjustment to disability (Isaki, Spaulding & Plante, 2008). Currently, these programs generally do not invest adequate resources to communication disorders and the important psychosocial issues that need to be addressed. Realities of effective social inclusion Over the past few years, the concept of social inclusion for individuals with disabilities has become increasingly important to disabled individuals, their families and caregivers. “Today, the process is moving children from special education settings into regular classrooms where they undertake most, if not all of their schooling” (Ashman & Elkins, 2005, p.526). In the educational system, inclusion involves efforts to include children with disabilities in the usual classroom setting with normal children, to the extent possible (Soto & Hartman, 2006). This academic inclusion is a reflection of the larger principle: that children and adults with disabilities should not live in a separate world isolated from the mainstream activities of life (Hall, Oyer & Haas, 2001). This is an important and worthwhile goal, but one that will not be realized unless it accepted that the disability may present a real challenge to significant and meaningful inclusion, and its challenges must be addressed. This is especially true for individuals with communication disorders, in which fundamental mechanisms of human interaction and communication are impaired by the disability (Ashman & Elkins, 2005, p.487). Effective social inclusion requires awareness on the part of family, teachers, carers and peers of the challenges faced by individuals with communication disorders. It is important also to identify the tools required to maximize meaningful interactions (Nunes & Hanline, 2007). For social inclusion of individuals with communication disorders to be effective, there must be attention focused on the disability and an effort made to compensate for the challenges to effective communication (Friehe, Bloedow & Hesse, 2003). These communication strategies are often simple, but very important to maximize the involved participation of individuals with communication disorders in social, community and education programs. Some effective approaches are listed below (Soto & Hartmann, 2006). Use of music and images to express feelings and promote feelings of interaction; Devote time and energy to communicate slowly, carefully and meaningfully with the affected individual; patience is essential. It is also important not to interrupt the verbally challenged speaker. Be realistic about the disability and its limitations. Expecting too much, too soon may create feelings of frustration, anger, resentment and ultimately social withdrawal in an individual with a communication disorder. On a larger scale, the social model for disability suggests that the concept of disability encompasses not only the affected individual but also society in regard to its attitudes and responses to the disability (Travis, 2006). For this reason, communities and governments must participate through legislation and social action to create an inclusive environment for individuals with disabilities. The ideas has been made manifest by the World Health Organisation standard set forth in the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and health. “There has been an interest in the World Health Organization's framework of functioning and disability by those in communication disorders since the original 1980 International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities, and Handicaps (ICIDH)” (Travis, 2006, p. 251). V. Educational best practice in this area Ensuring the use of an effective communication system The most effective communication system is specific to the needs of each individual student (Soto & Hartman, 2006). For example, some students require only low-technology approaches to assist communication, such as word or image cards to facilitate more rapid interactions. “The ability to narrate a story is fundamental to the development of overall communicative competence and involves the coordination of a variety of knowledge structures and linguistic abilities “(Soto & Hartman, 2006, p.456). Other, more severely disabled students, may require more complicated high-technology communication assistance devices, such as specialized computer boards and speech systems (Soto & Hartmann, 2006). Other approaches may involve the use of hand signals or sign language. In higher grades, allowing students to record classroom discussions may assist interpretation. General categories of communication assistance strategies including (Foreman, 2004): Melodic Intonation therapy (MIT): uses music to express verbal ideas; Visual Communication Therapy: uses symbols to ask and answer questions and express simple ideas; Visual Action therapy: uses pictures to identify objects; Promoting Aphasics Communication Effectiveness (PACE): uses any tool to facilitate communication. Fostering the intent and ability to use the system for the student and potential communication partners An important component of inclusion is the concept that all individuals have the same rights to participate in society, regardless of their individual limitations or disabilities (Jacklin, 1993). Therefore, it is the duty of the social structure to maximise the opportunities for productive inclusion by all members of society. This is especially true for individuals with communication disorders, in which a failure to accommodate these differences will produce a devastating effect on the quality and meaning of life for affected individuals. Some basic premises that are relevant to this concept are: Effective communication requires the participation of both speaker and listener in exchanging roles. Those who interact with individuals with communication disorders are active participants in the communication strategies and goals; Shared meaning and experience is the primary goal of effective communication and may not require speech; All persons have the right to communicate with others and should be afforded by society every opportunity to do so. In order to provide such opportunity, the following criteria must be met (Jacklin, 1993): Understand the developmental and interpersonal process of learning to communicate; Understand that interventions must accommodate a total communication approach that utilizes any and all methods of communication; Understand the importance of peer relationships and meaningful associations with others to achieve communication competence; Understand the importance of communication and meaningful interaction for individuals with communication disorders; Commitment to maximize the opportunities for individuals with communication disorders to interact meaningfully with others in social, academic and workplace environments; Understand that all individuals, regardless of the severity of their communication disorder, are capable of communicating effectively and meaningfully with others. . Facilitating communication opportunities for the student, peers, and adults in the school environment It is important for teachers to encourage students with communication disorders to participate in classroom activities to the extent possible (Butterfield, Arthur & Sigafoos, 1995). The first step in this process requires spending time with the student on an individual basis to assess his/her needs in the classroom to facilitate effective communication. This process involves listening to the student and addressing their concerns or anxieties about the inclusive classroom experience. The next step is to promote an atmosphere of acceptance in the classroom. This may be accomplished by encouraging the children to include the child with disabilities in everyday classroom activities. It is also important to encourage children to speak slowly and clearly and to model good speech and communication habits. It is important that therapists be included in the educational process and the classroom experience as they may contribute ideas and therapeutic approaches with classroom application (Jacklin, 1993). It is also important that the teacher has as complete an understanding as possible of the nature and extent of the disability and also reasonable educational expectations. CONCLUSION The development and effective utilisation of educational tools to enhance the learning experiences of children with communication disorders continues to present great challenges to educators. There are many reasons for this educational challenge. The diversity and complexity of language and its disorders require a multi-faceted therapeutic and educational approach. Current trends include a greater emphasis on inclusive education practices that promote learning and socialisation in a normal classroom setting. This approach does not obviate the need to include specialised devices to augment or assist language communication and interpretation. Current research in special education is devoted to creating a classroom environment for children with communication disorders that maximises the development of cognitive, developmental and social skills. References Ability Hub Assistive Technology Solutions. (n.d.). Use of computers for augmentative alternative communication. Retrieved August 08, 2008. from http://www.abilityhub.com/mouse/touchscreen.htm Ashman, A., & Elkins, J. (2005). Educating children with diverse abilities (2nd ed.). Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: Prentice Hall. Barret, M. (1999). The Development of language. East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press. Barrow, R. (2008). Listening to the voice of living life with aphasia: Anne's story. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 43, 30-46. Bingham, M., Spooner, F., & Browder, D. (2007). Training paraeducators to promote the uses of augmentative and alternative communication by students with significant disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 42(3), 339-352. Butterfield, N., Arthur, M., & Sigafoos, J. (1995). Partners in everyday communicative exchanges: A guide to promoting interaction involving intellectual disability. Sydney: Maclennan & Petty. Chakrabarti, S. & Fombonne, E. (2001). Pervasive developmental disorders in preschool children. JAMA, 285, 3093-3099. Cincinnati Children Hospital Medical Center (2007b).Communication Disorders. Retrieved August 08, 2008. http://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/health/info/speech/diagnose/communication.htm Danon-Boileau, L. (2001). The silent child: Exploring the world of children who do not speak. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Downing, J. E. (1996). Including students with severe and multiple disabilities in typical classrooms: Practical strategies for teachers. Baltimore: P.H. Brookes. Ellis, V. (2007). The narrative matrix and wordless narrations: A research note. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 23(2), 113-125. Foreman, P. (2004). Inclusion in action. Southbank, Vic.: Thomson Learning. Fried-Oken M. & Bersani H. (2002). Speaking up and spelling it out: Personal essays on augmentative and alternative communication. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. Friehe, M., Bloedow, A. & Hesse, S. (2003). Counseling families of children with communication disorders. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 24, 211-220. Glennen, S. (1997). Introduction to augmentative and alternative communication. In S. Glennen & D. Decoste, The handbook of augmentative and alternative communication (pp. 3-20). San Diego: Singular. Hall, B., Oyer, H. & Haas, W. (2001). ). Speech, language and hearing disorders. A guide for the teacher (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Haynes, W. O., Moran, M. J., & Pindzola, R. H. (2006). Communication disorders in the classroom: An introduction for professionals in school setting (4th ed.). Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett. Isaki, E., Spaulding, T. & Plante E. Contributions of language and memory demands to verbal memory performance in language-learning disabilities. Journal of Communication Disorders, 41(6), 512-530. Jacklin, A. Approaches to the development of language and communication with children who have speech and language disorders. Child Language teaching and Therapy, 9, 116-132. Learning disabilities Association of America. (2006). Non-Verbal Learning Disorders. Retrieved August 08, 2008. from http://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/non-verbal.asp. Lue, M. S. (2001). A survey of communication disorders for the classroom teacher. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Marquardt, T. & Gillam, R. (1999). Assessment in communication disorders: some observations on current issues. Language Testing, 16, 249-269. Nunes D., & Hanline M. F. (2007). Enhancing the alternative and augmentative communication use of a child with autism through a parent-implemented naturalistic intervention. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 54(2), 177-197. Soto, G., & Hartmann, E. (2006). Analysis of narratives produced by four children who use augmentative and alternative communication. Journal of Communication Disorders, 39(6), 456-480. Travis, T. T. (2006). Towards an international framework for communication disorders: Use of the ICF. Journal of communication disorders, 39(4), 251-265. Annotated Bibliography Ability Hub Assistive Technology Solutions. (n.d.). Use of computers for augmentative alternative communication. Retrieved August 08, 2008. from http://www.abilityhub.com/mouse/touchscreen.htm This website contains information on computers that can be used as AACs for individuals with communication disorders. Also included are software items that can enhance communication capabilities of individuals with special needs. For example, Dynamic Display software contains a communication board system with multiple applications and functions to facilitate communication across a spectrum of diverse disabilities. The site contains useful links to the last computers designed to meet the needs of the language and speech impaired individuals. The link to software includes detailed descriptions of the learning and communication software programs available. Purchasing information is also provided. This website is very useful for obtaining computer-based materials and hardware to equip a classroom for special needs’ students. Curriculum area: Alternative and augmentative communication Ashman, A., & Elkins, J. (2005). Educating children with diverse abilities (2nd ed.). Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: Prentice Hall. This is a widely respected textbook that is essential for the education of teachers in special education. Written by curriculum experts, the book emphasizes special needs educational principles as they are applied to the inclusive classroom. This text emphases inclusive education by exploring: Principles of inclusive education; Best practice approaches to inclusion of special needs students in mainstream classrooms; Impact of family environment on education; AAC approach to classroom design and new technology approaches. The book is divided into three sections: 1. family environment and its effects on the educational requirements of the special needs child; 2. Educational principles and approaches: specific numeracy, literacy and innovative technological approaches to inclusive education; 3. Challenges to inclusion and practical classroom solutions. Curriculum area: Best practice approach illustrated with case studies. This recently published book is a valuable resource for teachers of special needs children as it includes the latest research and insightful educational best practice ideas. This book may be obtained in Australia from publisher or from University of Queensland Library. Quote: “Today, the process of moving children from special education settings into regular classrooms where they undertake most, if not all of their schooling” (Ashman & Elkins, p.526). Barret, M. (1999). The Development of language. East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press. Barrett’s classic book is a basic text on the principles of language development. Outstanding educators explore theories and principles of cognitive development. It is recommended for education students, psychologists and speech therapists. Its focus is theoretical rather than practical as it is a foundation for understanding normal versus impaired speech development. The bulk of the chapters deal with normal processes of linguistic development; however, three chapters are devoted to the atypical processes of language development that occur in special needs children. This book provides an excellent foundation for understanding language development as a basis for exploring educational approaches to communicating with children with language and communication impairments. The author is an expert in the area of linguistics and psychology. Curriculum area: Types and causes of communication impairment Text is available at Barnes and Noble or Amazon booksellers. Barrow, R. (2008). Listening to the voice of living life with aphasia: Anne's story. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 43, 30-46. This is a research journal article that explores the world of aphasia through the experiences of a woman with this disorder that resulted from a stroke. The research based approach involved an extensive interview with this patient. Her perceptions of disability based on cultural expections are an important aspect of this study. The author is a speech and language diasability manager. This journal article may be obtained online from Pubmed. Curriculum area: Verbal student and non- verbal student. Bingham, M., Spooner, F., & Browder, D. (2007). Training paraeducators to promote the uses of augmentative and alternative communication by students with significant disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 42(3), 339-352. This is a research journal article that deals with the training of paraeducators in AAC skills. As such, it is a specialized reference most useful for individuals who work in this area. The research study was conducted to explore the uses of AAC in the classroom and described the results of a training session with special needs students. The paper was written by educators skilled in the use of AAC. Curriculum area: Alternative and augmentative communication Butterfield, N., Arthur, M., & Sigafoos, J. (1995). Partners in everyday communicative exchanges: A guide to promoting interaction involving intellectual disability. Sydney: Maclennan & Petty. This book is an introductory-level resource written for professionals by research experts involved in the development of communication skills in children with a wide range of disabilities. The format utilizes case studies to illustrate hands-on approaches to working with special needs children. The book’s contents include: Behavioural assessment tools; Intervention plans for teaching effective communication skills; Issues faced by non-verbal students and their teachers. This text is highly recommended for teachers training to become educators in the field of special education as it includes many practical approaches to communicating with and developing communication skills in children with special needs. Curriculum area: Educational best practice based on case study results The book may be downloaded via ERIC (education reference information resource) website. Cincinnati Children Hospital Medical Center (2007b).Communication Disorders. Retrieved August 08, 2008. http://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/health/info/speech/diagnose/communication.htm This is an extremely useful website that explains the many causes of communication disorders. It is very well organised and contains detailed, yet highly readable descriptions of different physiological, structural neurological and psychological origins of the inability to communicate. This site is a useful resource for all who deal with communications disorders, particularly researchers interested in the biomedical causes of language and speech impairment. Curriculum area: Types and causes of communication impairment Danon-Boileau, L. (2001). The silent child: Exploring the world of children who do not speak. Oxford: Oxford University press. This book was written by a renowned French psychoanalyst who presents six clinical case studies of children she has treated for language disorders. A major focus is the identification of causes of speech/language disorders in young children. As such, it is appropriate for parents, educators and therapists who interact with special needs children. The book is available from the publisher or Amazon books. Curriculum area: types and causes of communication impairment. Quote: “The factors that cause children not to speak are extremely varied. They cannot be reduced to psychological conflict. Nor should we be content to seek an explanation in the neurological side effects of trauma or cognitive failures. All these play some part, but the surest way to bypass a real understanding is to seize upon a single kind of explanation to the exclusion of all others” (Danon-Boileau, 2001, p .2. Downing, J. E. (1996). Including students with severe and multiple disabilities in typical classrooms: Practical strategies for teachers. Baltimore: P.H. Brookes. J. E. Downing’s book is a descriptive account of strategies for inclusive education of students with severe disabilities spanning pre-school through high school education. It emphasizes the importance of mainstreaming to improve the communication skills of disabled adolescents. Among the important principles covered are: Description of augmentative and alternative communication; Types of complex communication problems occurring in each age group; Parent and teacher resources for inclusive education; Education approaches for severe hearing impaired and blind children. This text is an important reference for parents and educators regarding issues of inclusive education and may be purchased through publisher. Dr. Downing is a researcher and educator. Curriculum area: Evidence-based practice. Ellis, V. (2007). The narrative matrix and wordless narrations: A research note. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 23(2), 113-125. Ellis is a Canadian professor of language who has written a narrative expose on the patterns of wordless communication between non-verbal children and their parents. The narrative patterns and communicative expressions were assessed to provide insight into AAC and how it may be improved. For this reason, this article would be a good source of data for educators and language experts in the area of AAC. Quote: “Preverbal and non-speaking children are able to share an experience, recount an event, and tell a story in collaboration with an intimate adult who provides the words. These children's narrative expressions take the form of gestures, sounds not recognizable as standard language, the combination of sounds and gestures, and sequenced actions. These narrative forms are understood by the parent or intimate adult because child and adult dwell within a shared narrative matrix, defined by personal, social, temporal, and spatial aspects of life together” Ellis, 2007, p.113). The journal article is available online at Pubmed. Curriculum area: Issues of non –verbal student Foreman, P. (2004). Inclusion in action. Southbank, Vic.: Thomson Learning. Written by Australian an expert in developmental diasabilities and special needs education, this text explores principles of inclusive education with the following highlights: practical approaches to the design of the inclusive classroom; curriculum strategies to address specific learning deficits legislative regulations for inclusive education in Victoria. The book is divided into several sections. The first deals with the general scope of inclusive education. The second part covers teaching practice for the inclusive classroom. The third section addresses the specific disabilities and how they may be accommodated in the inclusive classroom. The final section deals with additional resources and the challenges that must be addressed to design and implement successful inclusive approaches to special needs education. This is an excellent practical teaching tool for special education teachers in Victoria. The book focuses on inclusive approaches to education for a broad spectrum of special needs’ students with diverse disabilities. Text may be obtained at local libraries. Curriculum area: Best practice. Fried-Oken M. & Bersani H. (2002). Speaking up and spelling it out: Personal essays on augmentative and alternative communication. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. This valuable resource is a collection of essays written by individuals with communication disorders and their experiences with AAC and other personal and social issues. Theditors are experts in neurology, paediatrics and language disorders. Among the important issues covered are: first-hand experiences using AAC; communication challenges; effective versus ineffective approaches to intervention. Its unique perspective makes this book a must-read for all. The book is widely available through Barnes and Noble, Amazon and other booksellers and libraries. Curriculum area: Verbal student. Quote: “Today, as augmented speakers are becoming members of advocacy groups and speaking up at family meetings or employment seminars, we should be reading about their experiences and changing our policies, treatment approaches, and device designs appropriately” (Fried-Oken & Bersani, 2002, p.17). Glennen, S. (1997). Introduction to augmentative and alternative communication. In S. Glennen & D. Decoste, The handbook of augmentative and alternative communication (pp. 3-20). San Diego: Singular. AAC terminology is explored in this chapter, which also provides an historical perspective of this field of education. This is essential reading for students preparing for a career in special education. Written by an expert in otolaryngology, this chapter is the first in a book that explores many relevant areas of AAC. Text is available at Barnes and Noble and Amazon booksellers. Editor Glennen is an expert in alternative communication approaches. The handbook is divided into several sections: Part 1: augmentative and alternative communication; Part 2: use of AAC in children with developmental disabilities; Part 3: use of AAC at school and at home. The book is available at Amazon and Google booksellers. Curriculum area: Verbal student. Haynes, W. O., Moran, M. J., & Pindzola, R. H. (2006). Communication disorders in the classroom: An introduction for professionals in school setting (4th ed.). Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett. Written by specialists in communication disorders, this text takes a broad-spectrum approach to the study of communication disorders in children, emphasizing the following: normal communication processes and language development; language disorders hearing impairment effects on language neurological disorders communication disorders This comprehensive study of the origins of communication dysfunction is a must-read for educators, psychologists and therapists. Text is widely available from Amazon, Barnes and Noble and other booksellers. Curriculum area: Types and causes of communication impairment. Learning disabilities Association of America. (2006). Non-Verbal Learning Disorders. Retrieved August 08, 2008. from http://www.ldanatl.org/aboutld/parents/ld_basics/non-verbal.asp. This website was established by The Learning Disabilities Association of America. It contains useful information on the signs, symptoms and remedies for non-verbal learning disorders. The site also contains information on many other types of learning disabilities and is very accessible. It contains results of the latest research findings in many areas of learning disabilities. Content areas are specialized for individuals with disabilities, their families, educators and other professionals. For these reasons, it is an extremely valuable resource. Nunes D., & Hanline M. F. (2007). Enhancing the alternative and augmentative communication use of a child with autism through a parent-implemented naturalistic intervention. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 54(2), 177-197. This is a research journal article that involves a case study of a 4 year old boy with autism whose parents were trained to use pictorial and naturalistic teaching methods to communicate with the child. This approach may be of interest to individuals who interact with autistic children or who employ AAC approaches to education. The authors are researchers in childhood developmental disorders. The journal article is available online through British Library Direct. Curriculum area: Alternative and augmentative communication Soto, G., & Hartmann, E. (2006). Analysis of narratives produced by four children who use augmentative and alternative communication. Journal of Communication Disorders, 39(6), 456-480. This journal article, written by specialists in communication disorders in the US, describes the experiences of four autistic children with AAC. The study utilized a narrative assessment profile tool to assess the language interpretation skills of these children. This article should be of interest to professionals who deal with autistic children or who use AAC in practice. The journal article may obtained online through ScienceDirect. Curriculum area: Best practice. Quote: “The ability to narrate a story is fundamental to the development of overall communicative competence and involves the coordination of a variety of knowledge structures and linguistic abilities “(Soto & Hartman, 2006, p.456). Travis, T. T. (2006). Towards an international framework for communication disorders: Use of the ICF. Journal of communication disorders, 39(4), 251-265. Written by a specialist in communication disorders, this scholarly article addresses communication disorders from a global perspective. The article defines the concepts embodied in the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF). The author explores the ways in which communication disorders may be viewed in the context of this document. This is a highly specialized article with limited application to the practical study of communication disorders; however, policymakers and administrators may find the global perspective useful. The journal article may be obtained online through ScienceDirect. Curriculum area: Types and causes of communication impairment. Quote: “There has been an interest in the World Health Organization's framework of functioning and disability by those in communication disorders since the original 1980 International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities, and Handicaps (ICIDH)” (Travis (2006), p. 251). . Read More