Research Methodology of Attitudes towards Affirmative Action in the United States and India Study - Term Paper Example

Introduction The research paper is a report of the integration of domestic and international affirmative action strategies and policies and implications for human resource management and organizational productivity outcomes. The study was a pilot study to test the feasibility of undertaking a wider European study. It was undertaken in two countries namely the United States and India. The differences in the concept of affirmative action may vary across cultures and affect the employment and human resource services of each country. In this paper, the researchers describe their findings of the differences of the structure of affirmative action policies of the United States in comparison to those being implemented in India in terms of basis, approaches, government, legal impetus and coverage. The study provides interesting insights into the differences in employee’s perceptions of AAPs in India and the United States. These differences highlight both the positive and negative attitudes that people have about AAPs in the two countries. Employers should be aware of this issue and justify employment decisions based on the competencies of the selected candidates and stress that merit is not compromised. Further, the content and structure of diversity training and education programs cannot be superimposed without consideration of country and cultural differences. Does the title reflect the content? (Caldwell, K., Henshaw, L. and Taylor, G., 2005) The authors of the research came up with the title “The tale of two cultures: Attitudes towards affirmative action in the United States and India”. The title is informative and it indicates the focus of the study. It allows the reader to easily interpret the content of the study. The following are the noted characteristics of the title of the research. The title is the subject matter of the study. The locale of the study, the population involved, and the period when the data were gathered were all omitted on the title but were indicated on the description of participants on page 164 bullets 2.3 of the research. It was broad enough to include all aspects of the subject matter studied or to be studied. Hence, the title indicated what the readers should expect to find inside the thesis report. The title was brief and concise as possible.The authors avoided using the terms “An Analysis of,” “A Study of,” “An Investigation of,” and the like. This is important since all these things are understood to have been done or to be done when a research is conducted. Does the abstract summarize the key components? (Cresswell, J. 2003) The abstract is found on the first page of the research. It has the findings which provide the summary of the key components of the research. The abstract provides a short summary of the study. It includes the aim of the study, outline of the methodology and the main findings. The purpose of the abstract is to allow the readers to decide if the study is of interest to them. Are the authors credible? (Cresswell, J. 2003) The researchers hold appropriate academic qualifications and are linked to a professional field (management) which is relevant to the research. The authors or researchers are Gwendolyn M. Combs and Sucheta Nadkarni of Department of Management, 274 CBA, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA. The authors have established their credibility through experience and knowledge while practicing their profession. The research does not provide any specific detail about the exact professions of the researchers as well as any other titles that they hold. Is the aim of the research clearly stated? (Fisher, 2005) The aim of the study is clearly stated and conveys what the researcher is setting out to achieve. The aim of the pilot study is to explore the differences in affirmative action plans implemented in these countries as well as country cultural differences offer interesting backdrops for examining cross-country differences in employee perceptions of affirmative action. To describe, the aim is very purposive and is geared towards further understanding of the cultural differences which differentiates affirmative action policies in USA and India.. Is the rationale for undertaking the research clearly outlined? (Caldwell, K., Henshaw, L. and Taylor, G., 2005) The researchers present a clear rationale for the research, setting it in context of any current issues and knowledge of the topic to date. Research literature found on the research is composed of discussions of facts and principles to which the present study is related. For instance, the present study deals with the differences of affirmative action policies in India and the US, literature that was reviewed or surveyed was composed of materials that deal with the cultural background and structures of the AAP of the two countries. The differences between the two subjects are presented in a tabular form. The materials that were used were usually printed and found in books, encyclopedias, professional journals, magazines, newspapers, and other publications. Materials can be classified as Local, if printed in US; and Foreign, if printed in other lands. The sources for the research literature are mixed since mostly were from international Journals while others were from internationally published books, journals and dissertations. Is the literature review comprehensive and up-to-date? (De Walt, 2002) The literature review should reflect the current state of knowledge relevant to the study and identify any gaps or conflicts. It should include key or classic studies on the topic as well as up to date literature. There should be a balance of primary and secondary sources Related studies, on the other hand, are studies, inquiries, or investigations already conducted to which the present proposed study is related or has some bearing or similarity. They are usually unpublished materials such as manuscripts, theses, and dissertations. A survey or review of related literature and studies is very important because such reviewed literature and studies serve as a foundation of the proposed study. This is because related literature and studies guide the researcher in pursuing his research venture. With the research conducted by G. Combs et al the following are the observed characteristics of their related literature and studies that make them of true value. The surveyed materials were as recent as possible. This is important because of the rapid social, economic, scientific, and technological changes. Findings several years ago may be of little value today because of the fast changing life style of the people. Materials reviewed were objective and unbiased. Some materials are extremely or subtly one-sided, either political, or religious, etc. Comparison of these materials cannot be made logically and validly. Distorted generalizations may result. Materials surveyed were relevant to the study. Only materials that have some bearing or similarity to the research problem at hand should be reviewed. With this, they included research information regarding the current employment practices in US and India as well as the implications of these to the legislation of the AAP. Surveyed materials have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or data to make them valid and reliable. There are cases where fictitious data are supplied just to complete a research report (thesis or dissertation). Of course, this kind of deception is hard to detect and to prove. Thus, this is a real problem to honest researchers. But given the scholastic and clinical credentials of the writers, much benefit of the doubt is due to them. Reviewed materials were not too few or too many. They were only sufficient enough to give insight into the research problem or to indicate the nature of the present investigation. The number was also dependent upon the availability of related materials. Sometimes, there is a paucity of such materials. Ordinarily, from ten to fifteen related materials are needed for a master’s thesis and from fifteen to twenty-five for a doctoral dissertation depending upon their availability, as well as their depth and length of discussions. For an undergraduate thesis, from five to ten may do. The numbers, however, are only suggestive and not imperative nor mandatory. These are only the average numbers observed from theses and dissertations surveyed by the author. Are all ethical issues identified and addressed? Mitra, S. K. (1999) Ethical issues pertinent to the study are not clearly discussed. The researchers identified how the rights of firms used as samples for the descriptive statistics have been protected and informed consent obtained. The firms who participated in the study were informed regarding the purpose of the research and approval was sought from them prior to the interviews. (Mitra, 1999) The information regarding and confidentiality of the study were both communicated to them both in written and oral form. During the interview processes, the participants were regularly monitored for any signs of discomfort or anxiety that may affect their care. The researchers selected two governmental insurance agencies, one each in India and the United States. The national insurance agency in India was covered by the AAP and was required to meet the reservation quotas in recruitment. Although, the state insurance agency in the United States was not required to meet specific quotas, it was required by state law to submit an AAP and encouraged to develop timetables and goals for recruiting and promoting minority and women candidates. The researchers were able to get 187 participants and they are able to provide percentage information of the gender, race and response rates of the subjects. Is the selection of participants described and the sampling method identified? Hodge, D. R. & Gillespie, D. F. (2003) The researchers made clear which research strategy they are adopting, i.e. quantitative. A clear rationale for the choice was also provided, so that the readers can judge whether the chosen strategy is appropriate for the study. They used the survey method to collect data. They designed a survey to specifically capture respondents’ attitudes towards affirmative action. They distributed the surveys to voluntary participants during work time, with two weeks for completion. The research work involved a comprehensive and extensive examination of a particular individual (80 subjects from India and 77 subjects from United States), group or situation over a period of time which is somewhat similar to a case study. Young (1966) defines case study as a “comprehensive study of a social unit – be that unit a person, a social institution, a group, a district, or community.”(Cited by Sanchez, p. 43) Good and Scates define descriptive research such as this one as a method which takes account of all pertinent aspects of one thing or situation, employing as the unit for study an individual, an institution, a community, or any group considered as a unit. The research consists of the data relating to some phase of the life history of the unit or relating to the entire life process, whether the unit is an individual, a family, a social group, an institution, or a community. The complex situation and a combination of factors involved in the given behavior are examined to determine the existing status and to identity the causal factors operating. Is the method of data collection auditable? (Bradburn, N. 1998) Data collection methods are described, and appropriate to the aims of the study. The researchers describe how they have assured that the method is auditable. The method of data collection was auditable. The tabulation of the interview results was a good presentation of the data collected from the participants for easier analysis. The method of data analysis was somewhat credible and confirmable. This was due to the feeling of pain being relative and the magnitude may be varied from one participants to another. Is the method of data analysis credible and confirmable? (Patton, M. 2002) The data analysis strategy was identified; the processes were used to identify patterns and themes. The descriptive statistics measured cultural variables, attitude towards AAPs, perceptions of beneficiaries, and control variables. The researchers identified how credibility and conformability have been addressed. Almost all data-gathering devices are used in collecting data for a research study. The interview is very important. The participants who fit the description for the requirements for the sample population were interviewed to be able to gather data since they might be able to shed light on the problem or pressure ulcers. Long probing interview may be conducted especially with the participant himself. The questionnaire is another instrument. This is given to the participant himself and to some people who may be able to contribute something to the discovery of important data about the case. Autobiographies, too, are rich sources of information about the participant and his problems. When the participant writes the story of his life he usually includes those incidents that have great impact or consequence upon his life and these may reveal at once the cause of the problem. Little incidents may also have some cumulative effect which may create a problem which cannot be ignored later on. Other devices employed are the checklists, score cards and rating scales. Letters and notes to and from the particpant and his diaries may also help in diagnosing a case. Cumulative records in school and in guidance and counseling offices are valuable sources of information. Needless to say, all pieces of information are carefully and accurately recorded. Statistical procedures are then applied to analyze and organize or summarize the data in which case frequencies, types, trends, uniformities, or patterns of behavior are revealed. These serve as the basis for resolving the problem or conflict. This is interpreting the evidence available. Conclusion: The research includes the following characteristics as well: Completeness of data, validity of data, confidential recording and synthesis. The potential range of information includes symptoms, examination results (psycho-physical, health, educational, and mental, and history (health, school, family, and social aspects). Validity of data can be explained through an example like a doubtful birth should be verified through the birth registry and employment records by reference to employers. Educational workers have something to learn from medicine with respect to the confidential nature of professional records; the difficulties of individual teachers or pupils in relation to discipline, failure, achievement, or mentality should be regarded as professional problems to be treated in confidential manner. Synthesis is an interpretation of the evidence that is more than a mere enumeration of data secured; it embraces diagnosis in identifying causal factors, and prognosis in looking toward treatment or developmental procedures. REFERENCES: Bradburn, Norman M. and Seymour Sudman. Polls and Surveys: Understanding What They Tell Us (1988) Bradley, R.A. & Terry, M.E. (1952): Rank analysis of incomplete block designs, I. the method of paired comparisons. Biometrika, 39, 324-345. Caldwell, K., Henshaw, L. and Taylor, G. (2005) Developing a framework for critiquing health research. Journal of Health, Social and Environmental Issues. Vol.6 No.1 p45-54 Campbell, D. T. & Fiske, D. W. (1959) Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56, 81-105. Converse, Jean M. Survey Research in the United States: Roots and Emergence 1890-1960 (1987), the standard history Creswell, J. (2003). 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