Childs Learning - Case Study Example

The Application of Cognitive Developmental Theories with the Learning Performance Table of Contents I. Introduction …………………………………………………………….. 3 II. Ivan Pavlov on the Science behind Conditioned Reflexes ………. 4 III. Edward Lee Thorndike on ‘The Law of Effect’ …………………….. 5 IV. Burrhus Frederic Skinner on ‘The Behaviour of Organisms’ ……. 5 V. Albert Bandura on ‘Social Learning Theory’ ……………………….. 6 VI. Jean Piaget on Child’s Thinking …………………………………….. 7 VII. Recommendations and Conclusion ………………………………… 8 References ……………………………………………………………………. 10 - 12 Introduction Cognitive development is referring to the growth of a person’s intellectual activities related to the use and understanding of language, improving one’s own memory, thinking, and perceiving things around us. (Ginsburg & Koslowski, 1976) It is believed that the mental development of a child develops since birth. There are a lot of internal and external factors that could significantly affect the cognitive development of a child. Parents are among the major contributor in the learning capacity of a child since a child’s learning foundation normally starts at home (Casey, 2007; Mortimer, 2007) aside from the type of food and nutrition the child receives also significantly affects their cognitive development. (Black, 2003; Grantham-McGregor & Ani, 2001) External factors such as attending school and socializing with other children combined with the child’s personal experiences at home also contributes to the success and underachievement in a child’s learning. Considering the importance of a child’s cognitive development as they become an adult, it is necessary on the part of the student to become familiar with the theories presented by Ivan Pavlov (1977); Edward Lee Thorndike (1927); Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1938); Albert Bandura (1977); and Jean Piaget. As part of going through the significance of each theory and concept on a child’s cognitive development, the student will discuss some ways on how these theories can be applied to the cognitive development of children with special needs. At the end of the study, the student will provide some recommendation on how school teachers could maximize the use of these theories together with the conclusion. Ivan Pavlov on the Science behind Conditioned Reflexes Pavlov suggests that there are two types of reflexes known as innate reflex and conditioned reflex. (Psychologie Online, 2008; Pavlov, 2003) Innate reflex is referring to a child’s instinctive reaction to a stimulus. For instance, when a baby is hungry, it is an automatic reaction for them to cry as a way of calling his/her mother’s attention to give him/her some milk. In the process of crying, the child learns that crying louder effectively calls his/her mother’s attention so he/she will be given some milk. Conditioned reflex is totally the opposite of innate reflex in the sense that a child that learns from a conditioned reflex is not automatic or triggered by an instinct but rather his/her own positive or negative experiences that comes from his/her environment. For example: When a child accidentally touches a lighted candle, the child will feel the physical pain from his burning finger. For this reason, the child learns that touching a candle could hurt him physically. Therefore, each time the child sees a lighted candle, the child will remember his negative experience and would avoid touching a lighted candle again. Aside from avoiding inflicting negative learning experiences on students with special needs, school teacher must be able to provide a positive learning experience to their students to encourage them to continue striving hard to learn. For instance, school teacher may use simple praises with each of the students’ small improvements in learning. This will give them a sense of acceptance and appreciation for the effort they have exerted in school activities. Edward Lee Thorndike on ‘The Law of Effect’ Edward Lee Thorndike formulated the law of effect as a principle behind the use of instrumental learning. Basically, children are expected to respond to environmental stimulus that will give them satisfaction rather than discomfort or unpleasant experiences. (Herrnstein, 1970; Thorndike, 1927) The use of rewards or incentive motivational factors such as prizes, treats or any forms of special events that could increase the child’s enthusiasm to learn is an effective way of improving a child’s cognitive development. (Lipsitt, 1998; Thorndike, 1898; Kimble, Hilgard, & Marquis, 1961) For this reason, the application of operant conditioning in education is considered to be an effective way of improving a child’s cognitive development. For example: Teachers could encourage students with special needs to finish their homework as soon as possible in exchange of some sweets or small toys. As a result, the students will be very eager to finish his school papers as fast as they can so they could receive their rewards. Burrhus Frederic Skinner on ‘The Behaviour of Organisms’ B.F. Skinner focused on the science of behaviour such that reflex is highly correlated with the stimulus and response to a stimulus. (Hilgard, 1988) In other words, external factors could significantly affect the learning performance of a child. For example: A child who is left unattended by his/her parents is more likely to develop a poorer learning ability as compared to a child whose parents spend a little time teaching him with new things each day. In line with this matter, a study conducted by Shinn (1978) shows that the absence of the father has a lot of detrimental effects on the part of children’s cognitive development since the mother’s mourning over the loss of the father may result to a low-interaction between parent-and-child. In case one of the students have a similar life experiences at home, school teachers should develop a more effective strategy on how they could convert the child’s negative experience at home into something positive. School teacher may discuss with his/her co-teachers on how they could avoid the student’s negative experiences at home to hinder the child’s cognitive development in the long run. Another way to do so is to befriend the child so the student will learn to trust and open up with the school teacher. In the process, the school teacher could provide some counselling or advice to the student. Albert Bandura on ‘Social Learning Theory’ Bandura emphasises the importance of self-efficacy in social learning. (Bandura, 1986: 391) Basically, the child’s personal experience and mastery in a subject or a situational event combined with a keen observation, social persuassion, and motivational factors as well as the child’s effort and persistence to learn significantly affects the child’s learning performance. (Bandura & Jourden, 1991) In other words, it is the child’s confidence and competence that enables him/her to effectively learn from a new situation. For example: An educational environment wherein the students are well behaved, attentive in class, and study their lesson well has a significant impact over a child’s overall learning process since environmental aspect has a great influence over a child’s perception in learning. Basically, a good learning environment does not literally improve a child’s cognitive development but it could influence a child to have the interest in learning. Therefore, school teachers should be able to establish a good learning environment and be a good example to them in order to encourage them to actively participate in class and make them learn their lesson each day. Jean Piaget on Child’s Thinking Piaget classified child’s cognitive development into four stages known as sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operation, and formal operational. (Taylor, 2007; Papert, 1999; Kaplan, 1960) Before a child reaches the age of 2 years old, the child basically experience the world by observing its movement using his/her five senses. For example: The child sees people around him/her eat. Therefore, the child would eventually adapt the behavior of putting things into his/her mouth or sucking his/her thumb. Another good example is when the child see people around him/her smile, the tendency of the child is to smile back to other people. During the preoperational stage (between the age bracket of 2 to 7), the child begins to recognize mental symbols, words or pictures. For example: a child could easily recognize the symbol of McDonald’s each time the child goes around town. However, children would normally think only from their own personal point-of-view at this point since they are not yet capable of considering other people around him/her. For instance, the child wants to watch TV. Even if other people around the household is watching TV, there is a strong tendency for the child to snatch the remote control out of other people so they could switch the TV channel to cartoon programmes. Also, the child is also prone to play on his/her own using a solidary pretend play (Russ, Robins, & Christiano, 1999; Howes, 1985) until such time wherein the child becomes more accustomed being in school or in public places. Only then will the child learns to play socially with other children. During the concrete operational stage (between the age bracket of 7 to 11), the child becomes capable of naming and identifying objects based on its shape, appearance, size, or even perform a simple mathematical problem. At this point, educational games can be used to enable the child develop their capability in solving problems. (Wyver & Spence, 1999) Eventually, the child’s ability to solve problems strengthen as the child reaches the formal operaional stage (from 11 years old onwards). At this stage, the child beomes capable of performing logical and abstract thinking. Therefore, the child will be able to conclude clearly based on the facts and information presented to him/her. Recommendations and Conclusion Each of the theory discussed in this study can be used in promoting the learning experience of the students with special needs within the classroom setting. Considering that each theory has its own benefits and limitations when it comes to improving the students’ learning performance, school teachers should be able to integrate these theories based on the specific needs and learning abilities of students with special needs. Basically, the learning theory presented by Jean Piaget serves as a framework that provides the school teachers with the child’s expected learning ability and outcome based on the child’s age. Even though these theorists have their own different way of analysing the possible aspects that could significantly affect a child’s cognitive development, most of them refers to only one idea. In relation to the cognitive developmental theory presented by I. Pavlov, E.L. Thorndike, B.F. Skinner, and A. Bandura; there is a strong need for the school teacher to effectively establish a positive learning environment that could trigger the students’ curiosity in the subject matter. For example: School teachers could make use of academic games as well as information technology in making colourful educational materials. These tools are basically effective in capturing the attention and arouse the curiosity of the students. Aside from developing a good learning environment for the students, school teachers should also focus more on removing any barriers that could hinder the learning process of students with special needs. By doing so, it will be easier to capture the students’ attention in class. *** End *** References: Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. p. 391. Bandura, A., & Jourden, F. (1991). Self-regulatory Mechanisms Governing the Impact of Social Comparison on Complex Decision Making. In Berry J.M. & West R. L. 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