Aboriginal People of Australia during WWII - Essay Example

Name Tutor Institution Date Introduction The impact of the American military presence on the Aboriginal people of Australia during WWII The Second World War acted as a turning point for much of the world’s modern history. It was after the war that most nationalist movements gained full momentum. In Australia, one of the aspects through which the war affected nationalistic sentiments was through the provision of exposure which stimulated the agitation for civil rights by the aborigines.1 The accelerated levels of awareness on aboriginal civil rights can be traced back to the arrival and stay of American troops in Australia during the Second World War. One of the most significant tests of the Australian public during the conflict was the presence of great numbers of United States armed forces. Interestingly enough, a significant number were black soldiers. By August 1942, there were a total of 7, 258 black servicemen based in Australia2 This particular paper therefore seeks to provide an analysis of the impact of the presence of American military, especially the black American soldiers on the Aboriginal people of Australia during World War II.The scope of the analysis will be grounded on highlighting both the positive and negative impacts of the black American soldiers on the Aboriginal population during the World War II period. One of the significant impacts of the presence of black American military on the Aboriginal people of Australia during World War II was that they got inspired to seek further their rights.3According to Peterson & Sanders (7), for a good number of Australia’s colonial history, a large number of indigenous people had been deprived of various civil rights.4Consequently, the presence of the American military on Australian grounds during the War, significantly transformed the place of the indigenous Australian’s. As Shoemaker articulates, the presence of American soldiers ignited increased indigenous activism as well as self-determination to earn equal rights and opportunities (1).5 The interaction between Aboriginals with black American soldiers in various cities greatly instigated their quest for various rights. For instance the centrality of Stone City in Sydney Region, New South Wales, provided a significant military base. As opposed to other cities, more interactions between the indigenous people and black Americans occurred here. The Aboriginals noted that while the black Americans were discriminated against, they had much more civil rights as compared to them. The black American troops had more skills, money and more civil rights. 6 The Aboriginals were therefore deeply inspired by the possibility for a better civic as well economic equality that the African-American troops seemed to represent. Catley and Mosler (240) reveal that the Aboriginals in this particular area begun to be more aggressive in terms of gaining employment opportunities.7 A great number of the Aboriginal men and women were recruited within the war industries receiving better training, pay in addition to social contacts that a large number of them were denied before. Interestingly, there were jobs to be done during the war and suddenly the aspect of colour disappeared. 8Indigenous skills were now required especially to trace downed aircrews from Dutch, United States and the Australian Air force. Aboriginals were also employed to maintain vigil over the vast Australian Northern coastline for fear that the Japanese may invade.9 Documentary Australia (1) further reveals that indigenous Australians also provided the armed forces access to cheap labour force, by carrying out the work needed to support thousands of troops within the territory. This created many opportunities to the indigenous Australians that were not available to them in the past, such as earning wages, medical treatment, training and education. 10 Through interaction with black American soldiers, indigenous Australians were also able to further their rights through political activism. It can be argued that the kind of perception given to the Aboriginals by the black American soldiers was that although they were racially different from their white counterparts, it was possible for them to fight for their rights.11 Black American soldiers were operating in an army that was segregated, where they were habitually discriminated against and ill treated however they could frequently fight back. For instance, Hall (47) discloses that on April 17, 1942, in Townsville, over 100 black soldiers were rounded up by white soldiers armed with loaded guns and bayonets, on that night heavy fighting broke out between the 100 black soldiers of the 96th Battalion and white American soldiers. Due to the fight, colored boys were not allowed to enter Townsville. However, what was evident is that the black American soldiers were able to fight back in order to resist the attack. Another major incident that occurred in Townsville in the same year was a riot by black servicemen at Upper Ross. The incident began with shots that could be heard emanating from a black American camp for almost two hours. One source highlighted that the riot begun when a white Captain struck a Black soldier. The locals thought that the forces were playing "war games". Nevertheless all hell had broken loose at the campground when drunken black soldiers started to fire guns at white officers, who in turn returned the fire. A road block was later put up to prevent the rioting black soldiers from entering Townsville. Reports indicated that about 250 black soldiers were on rampage, and about 19 people were killed during the riot.12 Due to this sort of aggressive nature portrayed by the black American soldiers, political activism and the spirit to fight back also began among the Australian Aboriginals. Political activism started with Aboriginals who had acquired employment owing to the necessities of wartime production. This group was later absorbed into the trade union movements, a factor which turned out to be of great importance in the commencement of indigenous political protests such as that of the Pilbara strike of the 1946.13 The Pilbara strike was evidently the first major protest organized by the Aboriginals. Shoemaker, (1) further highlights that political movements were also initiated by the Aboriginals for instance the Pindan movement. The main ideology behind the development of the movement was grounded on a conviction by Aboriginal administrators that it was time for black Australians to learn to appreciate themselves and the value and usage of money. For the first time, the Aboriginal population demonstrated that they could have economic independence and have the capitalist system work in their favor. 14 Ryebuck, (9) highlights that the Black American soldiers had much to do with this sort of influence.15 The black power movement was also another political affiliation that Indigenous Australians would later use in order to further their political rights. The interaction between the Aboriginal Australians and black American soldiers during the Second World War was a perquisite for them in the sense that indigenous communities were able to use the black power slogan later in 1960s and 1970s to back for more radical reforms and civil rights advocated by the Black Power Movement. According to Inglis (6), the presence of black American soldiers in Australia aided the Aboriginals with a realization that they were not alone. In addition the sort of segregation and discrimination that the black American soldiers experienced while serving the American army was also a common factor among them. As a result when the black power movement arose in the 1960, indigenous Australians were also able to utilize the same slogan to fight for their civil rights.16 The presence of black American soldiers in Australia during the Second World War also revolutionized the perception of the concept of race among Australian white population which also significantly changed their view points towards the Aboriginal population. Bray, (69) reveals that in contrast to the rivalry that existed between white and black American soldiers, white Australians however welcomed the black American troops, irrespective of the fact that originally, the Australian Prime Minister was against their presence in Australia. White Australians treated the black American soldiers even better than their countrymen. For instance, in cities such as Townville white Australian women were greatly amused by the charming attributes that the black soldiers seemed to have.17 Potts (189) presents an extract from a Melbourne Diary referred to as ‘’ Hospitable treatment of colored soldiers by White Australian women.’ The article disclosed increased interaction between black American soldiers and White Australian women, which included visits to white homes and black men escorting white girls to dances. Moreover former Australian and American veterans also narrate that due to this sort of racial appreciation and acceptance, white American soldiers were infuriated to the extent that riots broke out in Brisbane, between black and white soldiers.18 Hall (47) further reveals that black American soldiers had the perception that Australians were wonderfully tolerant, but the Americans were a problem.19 A black American soldier quotes ‘’It wasn’t a big problem in Australia as I thought it would be, the Australians did not resent the blacks…… we did not experience the same kinds of problems as those we had with the Americans’’. 20It can be argued that based on this sort of appreciation of black American soldiers, the racial perception concerning black people including the Aboriginals was to some extent transformed. The introduction of a large number of black GIs also challenged the notion of sexual purity and gender among the Aboriginal community. Saunders (102) reveals that urban Aboriginal women began to work as prostitutes in brothels. In despite of having shot lived unforgettable love affairs with white Australian women; black American soldiers also had sexual relations with Aboriginal women. As highlighted earlier black American soldiers had charming attributes, furthermore they had more money and were more sophisticated as opposed to the Aboriginal men.21 As Moore (1981) claims; American soldiers were overpaid and oversexed. One of the Australian soldiers quotes in an interview ‘’ In Sydney we were competing with Americans for the attention of women. I did feel resentment, yes I wouldn’t hide that, I felt that the Americans were more privileged with better pay, more affluent and better dressed a more reason for their attractive appearance. I also felt resentment against some of the Australian girls who really chased the Americans. 22 Sunders, further outlines that; alcohol and sex acted as a primary medium of the interaction that existed between black American soldiers and the Aboriginal women. As a result, the attitude of Aboriginal women towards sexual relations was greatly transformed during the war time. Aboriginal women began to place little value on the aspect of virginity. Wartime reports along urban areas highlighted that the promiscuity of the Aboriginal women included prostitution of women as young as fifteen years .Interestingly enough, stereotypic perceptions begun to arise among the Aboriginal population, unmarried women who came into contact with black American soldiers were branded as disease ridden, dirty and unsanitary.23 We can also argue that the presence of black American soldiers during the Second World War also transformed the concept of gender among the Aboriginal population. As highlighted by a variety of facts, the existence of black soldiers in the American army spearhead the inclusion of the Aboriginals in the Second World War. Campbell, (1989) highlights that change in sex roles took place due to employment opportunities that development out of the war. Due to shortage of items that were not war related such as clothing and food products, women also had to actively participate in the war as codependants. As a result, gender roles were transformed in the sense that Aboriginal women also become part of the capitalist economy. This is because they had to equally work harder to feed their families, especially in scenarios where the husband had left for the war.24 The aspect of Aboriginal national identity was also transformed by the presence of black American soldiers in Australia. Since the colonial times, there were constant struggles of citizenship and recognition of the indigenous population.25 The active participation of black American soldiers in the Second World War was a clear indication of some extent of recognition of the black population as part of the American heritage. O'Connell, (1) highlights that the black American soldiers however believed that they were fighting for the freedom of a nation in which they were not at all free. Nevertheless their participation in the Second World War was symbolic in the sense that; although they were discriminated against, they had some sense of national identity. This particular aspect also significantly influenced the national identity of the Aboriginals. 26 Saunders (131) brings to light the fact that a lot of controversy arose during the Second World War concerning the integration of indigenous people into the war. The big question raised concerned the loyalty of the Aboriginals to the nation; if they were to be integrated in the war, would they fight to preserve the British land or ally with the enemy the Japanese. The loyalty of the Aboriginals towards the nation was questionable. Another big question was whether their participation in the war would result to unacceptable claims of demanding for full citizenship. In despite of the fact that deploying Aboriginals into the national war was in no means easy their inclusion into the war was vital. As a result Aboriginal men who were identified through the use of bureaucratic procedures were compelled to join the army.27 The integration of the Aboriginals into the war also enhanced their national identity in sense that, for the first time, all the occupants of Australia were now working towards a similar goal; which was to eliminate the enemy; the Japanese. Lewis (1) highlights that for the first time the black and white race in Australia were working for a common goal, the Australian government acknowledged the fact that just like the American government saw the need to deploy black troops, Australia could also use the same strategy in order to attain victory.28Shoemaker (1), further highlights, that before the war, very few Australians perceived the importance of the indigenous Australians as a whole, or even their representative role as a fundamental part of the Australian nation. Nevertheless, due to their contribution in the war, indigenous Australians were to some extent recognized as part of the Australian society. 29 Lewis (1) further brings to light the fact that only a certain population in Australia was identified as the ‘’enemy within’’ and this time around, it was not the Aboriginals. About 43% of 52,000 people were declared as ‘’aliens’’. The enemies of the Australian nation were the Italians, Germans, and Japanese. The Aboriginals on the other hand had some level of national identity due to their participation in the war to eliminate the Japanese.30 A variety of negative implications were directed to Australian Aboriginals due to the presence of black American troops in Australia during the Second World War. Foremost, the Australian Prime Minister John Curtin was unhappy with the entry of black American servicemen into Australia. His major fear was that their entry would put at risk the white Australian policy which aimed at infiltration of coloured races into the country. 31Although Curtain instructed the black American troops to remain in ships off the Australian coast, the American government triumphed and managed to get the black American soldiers on shore. Ryebuck (9) brings to light the fact that the deployment of black American troops into Australia defied the fundamental precepts on which commonwealth administrative and legislative policies were developed. Ryebuck (9) further highlights that the Queensland and the commonwealth governments having being forced to accept the entry of the black race into their territory, patterns of complex racial segregations policies were introduced by government which also adversely affected the indigenous black community in Australia. Thus certain basic civil rights of the Aboriginal were more restricted. 32 The world war 11 resurfaced the strict application of polices such as the 1930 protection’ policies.33This resulted to the radical alteration of demographic patterns and more segregation of black indigenous people in reserves. In addition the denial of civil rights such as the freedom of movement to certain regions and the search for employment were also reintroduced. For instance an exceedingly ill measured move occurred in Port Hedland district in October 1942, when the government declared the region a prohibited zone for the Aboriginals, with an exemption of those granted passes. The measure was aimed at reducing the flow of Aboriginal workers to the well paying jobs that existed in Port Hedland.34 Another negative implication of the presence of black American troops on the Aboriginals was that increased racial tension between the black and white American soldiers to some extent negatively influenced the relationship between white Australians and the Aboriginals. Mosler and Catley (28) highlights that persistent violent incidences based on race frequently occurred due to the presence of tens of thousands of black soldiers in Australia. Racial questions were instigated in many white Australians after perceiving the kind of relations that existed between the white and black American soldiers. For instance, wherever a large number of American troops existed especially in Townsville, Brisbane and Cairns, physical conflict frequently occurred between black and white soldiers. 35Various interesting scenario’s regularly occurred in Townsville whereby usual brawls in pubs on Saturday nights turned out to be serious confrontations. Another interesting incident also occurred in November 1942 referred to as ‘’ the battle of Brisbane”, which begun as a normal brawl and later turned out to be fatal. 36Mosler and Catley (28) further reveal that violence between white and black Americans were frequent especially when color lines were crossed. In addition racial segregation was a common aspect which frequently resulted to violence. Although Australians were generally not blatantly racist the images portrayed by relations between the black and white American troops instigated more racial alignments.37 Conclusion From the above analysis, it is clear that the presence of the black American troops in Australia brought about significant impacts on the Aboriginal people of Australia during the Second World War. It is also evident that the end of the Second World War denoted a time of celebration as well as relief for a great number of Australians, and also changes in some of the civil rights of Aboriginal Australians. This paper has presented implications of the presence of black American soldiers on the Aboriginals such as they were inspired to seek further their rights, the perception of race, gender and sexual purity also changed significantly, in addition change in Aboriginal national identity was also witnessed. Some of the negative implications included; patterns of complex racial segregations were introduced by government which also adversely affected the indigenous black community in Australia and the increased racial tension between the black and white soldiers also impacted on the relationship between white Australians and the Aboriginals. In summary it can be argued that though the presence of black soldiers in Australia did not offer the momentum for prosperity for majority indigenous, their existence during the war, did however, provide the spark for increased indigenous Australian activism, self-determination and improved civil rights. References Bray, George, Aboriginal Ex-Servicemen of Central Australia (Alice Springs: Institute for Aboriginal Development Inc.1995), p69.   Catley Robert & Mosler David, America and Americans in Australia (Greenwood Publishing Group.1998), p 240. Documentary Australia. 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Inglis, K.S, Sacred Places:  War Memorials in the Australian Landscape Carleton South (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press.1998), p6. John Curtin, Prime Ministerial Library. Australian - American Relations: U.S. Marines in Wartime Melbourne (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press 1943), p5. Retrieved on April 6, 2011 from Lewis, Robert, The Home Front - World War 2, (Retrieved on April 6, 2011 from http://www.anzacday.org.au/history/ww2/homefront/overview.html, 2010), pp1. Londey, Peter.Indigenous Australian Servicemen: Change in Attitudes, Retrieved on April 6, 2011 from http://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/aborigines/indigenous.asp,Pp 1, 2011. Moore, J, H, Over-paid, Over-sexed and Over Here (Brisbane: University of Queensland Press, 1981). Murdoch, K, Transcript of Interview with Collin Kerr- Grant (Keith Sound Archive,1989). Peterson, Nicolas & Sanders, Will, Citizenship and Indigenous Australians: Changing Conceptions and Possibilities, Reshaping Australian Institutions (Cambridge :Cambridge University Press, 1998) Pp 7. Oceania, Jane’s. Aborigines and White Settlers: The Breaking down of Aboriginal Society, Retrieved on April 6, 2011 from http://www.janesoceania.com/australia_aboriginal_whitesettlers/index1.htm, 2009. O'Connell, Garth. Indigenous Australians at War (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2005) , Pp 1. Peit. L, Aboriginal Inequality and Ways to Improve Inequality, Retrieved on April 6, 2011 from http://www.bukisa.com/articles/238639_aboriginal-inequality-and-ways-to-improve-inequality#ixzz1G2edylhU,Pp 1 2010. Potts and Annette Potts, Yanks Down Under1941-1945 (Melbourne: Oxford University Press), p189. Rosemary Campbell, Heroes and lovers: a question of national identity (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, c1989). [Examines the presence of American troops in Australia and their contribution to a questioning of sexual roles and race relations. Reynolds, Henry. The Anzac Day Legend and Coloured Digger Anzac March, Retrieved on April 6, 2011 from http://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/history/anzac-day-digger-march.html Pp 1, 2007. Rubenstein, Kim. Citizenship in Australia: Unscrambling its Meaning (Melbourne University Law Review, 1995), pp 503—527. Ryebuck Media, Investigating the Impact of the American ‘Invasion’ of Australia 1942-45 , (Sydney: Allen & Unwin,2002) Pp 7-9. Rosemary Campbell. Heroes and lovers: a question of national identity (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1989). Shoemaker, Adam, Introduction: Australia's Fourth World Literature (Sydney: Allen & Unwin 2003) , Pp 1. Shoemaker, Adam, World War II and the Assimilation Era: A Self-Destructive Doctrine (Sydney: Allen & Unwin 2003). http://epress.anu.edu.au/bwwp/mobile_devices/ch03.html,Pp 1 2003. Saunders, Kay, Inequalities of Sacrifice; Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Labor in Northern Australia During the Second World War, Labour History (1995). pp. 131-148. http://www.jstor.org/pss/27516395 Thomas Daniel &Radford Ron , Creating Australia: 200 years of art, 1788-1988(University of Virginia) pg 78-86. Oral history resources of the Aboriginal, (Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies 2010). Read More