Late Imperial China: Effects of Intellectual and Historical Traditions - Report Example

Late Imperial China: Effects of Intellectual and Historical Traditions How and Why Competing Intellectual and Historical Traditions Affected the Nature and Pace of Reform in Late Imperial China China has had a long history punctuated with revolutions and counter revolutions. The late 1800s and early 1900s saw a common theme with respect to the political environment; the demand for reforms in regard to the way the country was being governed and its systems. The pace of reforms in the country varied quite a lot depending on a number of factors. Some of the factors that impacted on the pace of reforms in the country included the commitment of political leaders and intellectuals (or lack of it) to change; the catastrophes that the nation experienced; foreign influences; and historical traditions. Competing intellectual thoughts and historical traditions played a major role in so far as the nature and pace of reforms are concerned. This paper will discuss how and why competing intellectual and historical traditions affected the nature and pace of reform in late imperial China. Chinese Customs and Traditions as a Major Impediment to Reforms The Chinese society had long lived as guided by customs and traditions. Before the nineteenth century began, it was the norm for the customs and culture of the people to be passed from one generation to the next through the traditional education system. The system of education at the time focused on moral training. The education system as it was, effectively discouraged change of status quo with respect to the way the country was being governed. The authorities, in fact, took advantage of the system of education and traditions to establish themselves and maintain their dynastic regimes. One of the traditions used by the dynasty to keep the people under its rule was the writing of literary essays as a requirement before joining the civil service. As Reinsch notes, “Secure in its authority, it (China) has selected its servants on the basis of examination tests, reinforced by such favor as promising candidates might be able to obtain through douceurs of various kinds1”. The reliance on examinations as opposed to more open and rigorous means of selecting government employees served to reduce the pace of reforms in the nation. The requirement that one needed only to pass an examination to be employed was subject to corruption especially by those who were in authority or had good connections. The realization that nations that relied on well developed policies were performing better in the period after the Russo-Japanese War served to further boost the demand for serious reforms. Although there were calls for reforms on the way the empire was being governed, the political leaders often did what they could to suppress opposing voices and resist change by insisting on the superiority of the classical system. For example, while Cixi made an effort toward welcoming reforms, his support for certain aspects of the classical system are quite evident. He, for example, notes that, “Our own august ancestors set up new systems to meet the requirement of the day… Laws and methods become obsolete and, once obsolete, require revision in order to serve their intended purpose”2. In this case Cixi support to the establishment and abolition of systems, methods and laws with the changing times. For as long as the classical education system, customs, and traditions of the people were given priority and emphasized, the rate of reforms tended to remain low. On the other hand, the abolishment of traditional education and traditional ways of doing things tended to accelerate the rate of reforms in the nation. The traditions of China not only served to derail the reform agenda. In some cases, it actually served to secure it. For example, Cixi notes in her edict that, “Western wealth and power are based on… precepts, handed down by our ancestors: “to hold high office and show generosity to others”3. In this case, Cixi presents the link between western and Chinese customs. Essentially, the message being passed in this case is that Chinese customs are in support of (many) western ideals and are not opposed to constructive changes that may be borrowed from the west. Intellectual Thoughts in Support of Reforms Late Imperial China had several intellectuals who presented different views regarding the reformation of the country. To some extent, the views of these intellectuals impacted on the way the nationals and political leaders viewed the calls for reforms. In his article, Zou Rong an anti-Manchu nationalist calls for the sweeping away of the millennia of despotism in all its form4. Rong calls upon his fellow countrymen to engage in a revolution. In his words, he notes, “I here cry at the top of my voice to spread the principles of revolution throughout the land5”. In his discourse, Rong goes to relative length in trying to persuade his people that revolution is the way to go. His proposals are so drastic as to call for the expulsion or killing of the Machus who were settled in China. Part of his call is for the restoration of press freedom and freedom of speech. Although Rong eventually was imprisoned and died, his rhetoric and that of intellectuals who were keen to air their views public, however contentious they were, served to heighten the pace of reforms in the nation. Yet another intellectual that called for sweeping reforms in the nation was Kang Youwei. His advisory memorandum to the Emperor of Guangxu notably led to the precipitation of the Hundred Days Reforms. In the memorandum, Youwei calls upon the emperor to consider the trends in other countries and realize that failure to change would result in the country’s failure. In his discourse, Youwei argues that by adopting change, the country would grow stronger. He notes with respect to the need to have institutional changes that, “Moreover, our present institutions are but unworthy vestiges of the Han, Tang, Yiian, and Ming dynasties; they are not even the institutions of the [Manchu] ancestors.”6 Wittingly, the scholar tends to distance the bad institutions from Chinese traditions in his argument. He went ahead to call upon the emperor to institute a national policy that will guide the nation in its endeavors toward positive development. In addition he criticized old-fashioned bureaucrats and ministers for “upsetting the ancestral institutions” while calling on the emperor to follow the Japan’s model of reforms7. Although Youwei and Rong shared similar ideals in respect of the need for reforms, it is evident that the former took a more friendly approach toward calling for reforms. His sentiments proved fruitful as it led to the precipitation of the Hundred Days Reforms as previously noted. In the declaration of the Hundred Days Reforms, the Emperor of Guangxu sent packing two presidents and four vice presidents for being disobedient to the emperor’s orders. For being a worthless expense to the country, a number of governorships were also abolished. In addition to other measures, the emperor ordered the approval of the kind of budgetary systems that were in use by western countries. Reactions of Political Leaders to the Reforms Agenda The commitment of the Emperor of Guangxu to reforms served to accelerate the rate of reforms. In A Press Summary of the Hundred Days Reforms (1898), one of the issues the governor deals with is the education system. Apart from abolishing the literary essays which were used by the government to maintain control of the people, he encourages the learning of arts, sciences, and modern agriculture8. Other changes in the same respect include the establishment of universities, the learning of western ways, and encouragement of freedom of expression. The edict authorized by Cixi in relation to the promise of reforms on military, government, and bureaucracy sheds a light into the situation of China in early 1901. The statement that, “Now things are at a crisis point where change must occur, to transform weakness into strength”9 shows that the country was in a crisis and there was no alternative other than to embrace change. In the edict, Cixi tries to convince her subjects that real reforms can be achieved by adopting a blend of good western and Chinese ways and traditions and disposing of bad ones. The ideas presented by Cixi in the edict are evidently supportive of reforms. The nature of reforms in this respect revolves around making changes to institutions, rooting out corruption, and revising laws and regulations10. Conclusion In conclusion, before 1900, the people of China were ruled by leaders who focused on customs and traditions as opposed to constructive western-styled policies for the development of the nation. Calls for reforms soon came from different quarters, more especially from intellectuals and political reformists. The calls for reforms were influenced mainly by external factors such as the Japanese war and catastrophes that followed soon afterwards. Although Chinese traditions were mainly a barrier to reforms, the efforts of intellectuals bore fruit as the political leadership took action toward reforming the country in different ways. Two intellectuals that particularly made an impact on the destiny of the country with respect to adopting reforms were Zou Rong, an anti Manchu nationalist, and Kang Youwei, a scholar. Read More