Confucianism: Obstacle to Reforms and Modernization in Late Qing China - Term Paper Example

?Confucianism: Obstacle to Reforms and Modernization in Late Qing China Introduction Confucianism has been considered as a religious belief similar to Christianity, Islam, or Buddhism. The truth, however, is that Confucianism does not have any deity and it does not have any teaching regarding life after death, which are two aspects that are common subjects of religious beliefs. Confucianism is accurately described as a system of teachings on matters of relationships between human beings. It is “a body of philosophical teachings about human beings, their values, their institutions, and so on or about, simply, a way of life in this, but not the next world” (Chen 1999: 27). Confucius did not try to propagate his teachings because of the belief that these are inspired by a divine being, differentiating him from the other philosophers and religious figures in history. Confucianism originated from the ideas or teachings of K’ung Fu-tzu, a philosopher who lived within the period of 551 B.C.E. to 479 B.C.E (Collinson et al 2000: 217). It became a dominant philosophy in China is because Confucius himself went around the different regions to spread his teachings among the people with the help of his disciples. Confucius became a teacher of the younger members of the nobility. It was at this point that the historical and material basis for Confucianism to become the philosophy of the Chinese ruling classes developed. With Confucianism becoming the official philosophy imposed by the nobility on the people, it soon became a major obstacle to any democratic reform and modern concept that to threaten the reign of dynastic rulers. The late Qing dynasty, which existed at a time when the West was introducing democratic reforms and modernization, resisted change by continuing to defend and promote Confucianism. Max Weber articulated the argument that Confucianism hinders modern development in the form of economic and political reforms. He noted that Confucianism has no “enthusiasm for action” and because of this, China did not manage to develop capitalism like the countries in the West during the same period (Bendix 1998: 141). In order to affirm the validity of the argument that Confucianism was indeed an obstacle for modernization and reforms during the late Qing era, it is necessary that the impact of the three pillars of hierarchy, harmony and filial piety on attempts to introduce these on China are evaluated. These pillars are the very foundations of the Confucian philosophy that have profoundly influenced economic, political, and cultural structures of Chinese society during the period of the late Qing dynasty. Chapter I Hierarchy as an Obstacle to Political Reforms The adherence to existing hierarchical structures or arrangement is a key characteristic of Confucianism. Confucius promotes principles that justify the unequal relations between human beings which are prevalent in the era of feudalism. In Confucianism, order or stability in a country or society can only be maintained if the subjects or the citizens never challenge authority and instead remain submissive to the ruler. Those in the lower rungs should never be discontented at their place in society and should just accept their plight as an inevitable part of reality. Confucius explained that there are five cardinal human relationships and these are parent-child relationship, sibling relationships, husband-wife relationship, basic economic relationship (employer-employee/superior-subordinate), and friendship (Li 2012: 37). Of the five, the first four are clearly relationships where one is superior and the other is inferior. It is only in friendship that the parties involved may consider themselves co-equals. It is in the Confucian description of the basic human relationships that its perspective on hierarchy is exposed. Hierarchy is clearly the opposite of equality and this could be seen in the distinction between the parties in the relationships defined by Confucius. In ancient China, parents, particularly fathers, held absolute authority. Husbands are also superior to their wives just as older siblings are to the younger ones. The authority of the nobility or employers could not be questioned by their subordinates. This is particularly more apparent in governance in wherein, “while it assumed that government was based on a moral code, Confucianism always stacked the deck against the individual and in favour of authority, from the peasants at the base of the power structure to the emperor at its pinnacle” (Grasso et al 2009: 18). With such frame of mind developed among the members of the nobility, it is only expected that they would resist any calls for change or for reforms coming from the ranks of those who are considered to be inferior to them. The late Qing China is a classic example of a feudal society which is composed of the nobility, who are at the highest rungs in terms of political and economic power and of cultural influence, the freemen, the peasants and the slaves. The peasantry was the largest social group in the late Qing China and it was also from their ranks that formed the biggest support system for reformist organizations. Although they were free tenants, they were still obliged to present gifts and render service to their landlords (Hansson 1996: 31). Despite the fact that Confucianism was a philosophy which those in the lower levels of the hierarchy were made to accept as the truth, the peasants and the rest of the non-agricultural freemen eventually realized that reforms with egalitarian and modern characteristics must be introduced in China. Since the Qing dynasty and the rest of the nobility benefitted from the hierarchy that Confucianism sought to defend through its teachings, they would resist all actions that could lead to their downfall from power. They would invoke the teachings of Confucianism regarding hierarchy in order to convince the discontented subordinates not to seek equality. An example of this is the fact that “Qing emperors viewed horizontally aligned groups of gentry-officials as factional threats to the sanctity of vertical loyalties that culminated in the person of the emperor himself” (Elman 1989: 405). It is true that the concept of modern democracy was foreign to the Chinese during the said era. Nevertheless, the fact that there were individuals who actually espoused it only proved that there was an internal basis for democratic reforms to be instituted. However, due to the dominant Confucian ideology at that time, which promoted a feudal concept of hierarchy, any political movement that sought to introduce modern democracy found difficulties in uniting the people and encountered with violent reactions from the nobility. Chapter II Harmony as Acceptance of the Status Quo As a philosophy that seeks a life of happiness and peace, it is expected that Confucianism would give utmost importance to the principle of harmony. Harmony is basically a condition in which everything is in consonance with the other; thus producing a general effect of bliss. Confucianism teaches that even if there are major differences or even if there are manifestations of opposing interests, social harmony is possible and that this should actually be the aim of both the leaders and followers, or rulers and subjects. Social harmony is defined as “the quality that pervades a social situation when shared meanings and values achieved through communication and participation focus the associative experience with sufficient intensity” (Tan 2003: 78). With this definition, it is clear that Confucianism idealizes society and presents a theory that harmony is indeed possible even if there are actually material bases for contradictions between people. It is with this concept that the attitude of the powerful towards the contradictions of the old and new takes a biased stand for the former. However, the Confucian concept of harmony is actually reactionary and conservative in character. It may take into consideration the fact that contradictions do exist but it does not recognize their potential to intensify to a point of destroying the facade of social harmony and ultimately introducing changes. When Confucianism teaches about harmony, it always meant justifying the existing set-up or hierarchy; that people are in different positions or statuses in society for a reason. However, despite the prevalent efforts of instilling the principle of Confucian social harmony on the people, it was still possible for them to entertain ideas that would inspire them to question the inequality in society. It was in during the late Qing era though that serious challenge to the regime brought about concepts that also questioned the validity of this Confucian concept. It was in the late 1800s and early 1900s that China opened up to the entry of foreign interests that not only took advantage of the country’s natural and human resources. In 1868, Zhang Deyi, an interpreter for the Qing was sent to the US a diplomatic mission and he was able to observe Western modern democracy at work. He expressed dissatisfaction with it, stating that “each party has its selfish interests” and that “they are not in harmony” (1989: 40). This exemplifies the Confucian-influenced views of Chines functionaries on the modern and democratic societies. However, it was also during the said period that Chinese intellectuals encountered Western concepts of democracy and modernization. Due to the fact that many of these intellectuals also managed to become part of the bureaucracy, the Empress Dowager, who was in fact the ruler during this period of the Qing era, allowed the introduction of certain reforms particularly in education. This did not immediately led to more sweeping changes in national politics, economy, and culture. It took time but it was basically based on the fact that “the reforms accelerated the formation of new elites who were to play a large role in the fall of the dynasty” (Roberts 2011). There are basically three factors that restrained the advance of the reforms introduced during the late Qing era to actual achieve a more profound impact on society and all these could be attributed to how the Confucian concept of harmony had been instilled in the in the nobility, the freemen, including the intellectuals in the bureaucracy, and marginalized social groups. First of all, the nobility would naturally be resistant to changes that would diminish their power and influence in all spheres. In the spirit of harmony, they naturally allowed some limited reforms nonetheless. The empress and her fellow nobles were not really the decisive factors that delayed modernization and restrained reforms in the late Qing China. It was the intellectuals and the ordinary people’s inability to reject the conservative and reactionary concepts of Confucianism, especially harmony. If they themselves were able to overcome the restrictive notion of harmony, they would have been inspired to introduce radical changes despite the upheavals these may trigger and compel China to modernize as a result. Chapter III Filial Piety and Submission to Antiquated Ideas Filial piety by itself could be considered as a concept or principle that is acceptable. As the term implies, the bond between parent and child, particularly father and son, should be very strong and it should be one that is built on the responsibility on the part of the father and loyalty on the part of the son. The son, in this regard, should absolutely be loyal and subservient to the father, regardless of the correctness of the father’s ideas or actions. This blind loyalty is actually at the core of such relationship and is the very reason that the ties in traditional Chinese families are very strong. Confucius is said to have actually verbalised this point when he explained that uprightness is not displayed when sons surrender their fathers to authorities if they have committed crimes. Instead, “fathers cover up for their sons cover up for their fathers” and that uprightness is determined by how fathers or sons live up to such expectations (Rainey 2010: 25). This concept naturally has effects on society and the most telling of which is in the treatment that the nobility and the people give each other. Blind fealty is at the core of such relations, where even those who have developed the insights that question it are ostracised for expressing or even thinking so. The Confucian concept of filial piety is distorted, especially by Western standards. This is exactly the reason why there are attempts to explain Confucianism in a different light that would tone down, if not totally change the context of this idea. However, there is nothing in the texts attributed to Confucius that actually state otherwise. Confucius, however, wrote to mention the correct attitudes of sons once there is basis for them to criticise their parents. He said that “when serving your father and mother, remonstrate gently” and “if they do not accept your criticisms, remain respectful, do not act against their wishes, and follow their lead without resentment” (Rainey 2010: 26). A child may express his criticism or his discontent over what the parents do or think but he should do so by choosing his words in a manner that would not antagonize them. However, if the parent or parents choose to ignore the criticisms, then there is nothing that the child can do but to respect his parents’ decision and to submit to their wishes without showing signs of apprehensiveness. This relationship between father and son or parents and children is antiquated by today’s standards. With the entry of the modern ideas during the late Qing era, this is one of the Confucian concepts that were seriously challenged. Filial piety is also reflected in how the state treated the people. Confucius’s idea of absolute loyalty and submission of the children towards their father was the foundation of the patriarchal culture that dominated Chinese society during the said era. Benjamin Schwartz in his book mentioned that “the value of filial piety fosters a habit of disciplined subordination and acceptance of authority - notions of self-abnegation which can perhaps be transferred from the family to the factory and nation” (1964: 39). The nobility, particularly the reigning Qing dynasty, actually used this Confucian principle in its effort to impose its will on the people. An example is provided by Norman Alan Kutcher in his studies on mourning practices of the Chinese during the late Qing era. Kutcher explains that “the state was required to encourage filial piety of its officials by ensuring they mourned their parents properly” and that “by so doing, it could reap an important benefit: filial devotion of officials for their parents would be transformed into loyalty to the ruler” (2006: 2). Due to the fact that the people themselves have also accepted the filial piety as part of their way of life, such action on the part of the rulers definitely became effective. This Confucian concept became its cultural tool for continuing its subjugation of the Chinese people and the perpetuation of traditions that benefit it. Chapter IV Conclusion Confucianism was the major factor that prevented relevant reforms and modernization in China during the late Qing era. The ruling classes were able to take advantage of it as they acted to retain their dominance in both the economy and politics. It was also the powerful influence of Confucianism that discouraged the Chinese people from seeking changes in society that would truly benefit them politically and economically and bring about sweeping reforms. Modernization would not have only made the Chinese economy prosper towards capitalism as all the other advanced countries during the era did. Theoretically, it would have also the triggered changes in the hierarchy, which would no longer follow the formula suggested by Confucius because of its requirement that political, economic, and cultural foundations of the feudal and patriarchal system be destroyed. It has been explained that hierarchy as an absolute discourages any attempt to change the system and introduce reforms that would be more egalitarian. Harmony negates the reality that people are being treated unequally. Filial piety, on the other hand, establishes the frame of mind that authority is absolute and unquestionable. All these principles clearly serve the interests of the ruling class, particularly the nobility during the late Qing era. In the dynasty’s effort to stop modernization and attempts at reforms, these Confucian principles were often invoked. The reason why this worked was not simply because the nobility were convincing in their efforts but also because the people themselves had accepted Confucianism as the truth. Modernizing the economic and political systems necessitate cultural transformation. During the late Qing period, Confucianism was entrenched in Chinese culture. List of References  Bendix, R. (1998) Max Weber: An Intellectual Portrait, Volume 2. London: Routledge Chen, F. (1999) ‘The Confucian View of World Order.’ In Religion and International Law. ed. by Janis, M. and Evans, C. London: Martinus Nijhoff Publication  Collinson, D., Plant, K. and Vilkinson, R. (2000) Fifty Eastern Thinkers. New York: Routledge Elman, B. (1989) ‘Imperial Politics and Confucian Societies in Late Imperial China: The Hanlin and Donglin Academies.’ Modern China 15, (4) 379-418  Grasso, J., Corrin, J., and Kort, M. (2009) Modernization and Revolution in China: From the Opium Wars to the Olympics. New York: M.E. Sharpe  Hansson, A. (1996) Chinese Outcasts: Discrimination and Emancipation in Late Imperial China. New York: Brill Kutcher, N. (2006) Mourning in Late Imperial China: Filial Piety and the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Li, J. (2012) Cultural Foundations of Learning: East and West. New York: Cambridge University Press  Rainey, L.D. (2010) Confucius and Confucianism: The Essentials. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell Roberts, J.A.G. (2011) A History of China. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan Schwartz, B. (1964) In Search of Wealth and Power: Yen Fu and the West. Cambridge: Belknap Press Tan, S. (2003) Confucian Democracy: A Deweyan Reconstruction. Albany: State University of New York Press Zhang Deyi (1989) ‘Strange Customs.’ In Land without Ghosts: Chinese Impressions of North America. ed. by Arkush, R.D. and Lee, L. Berkeley: University of California Press   Read More