Polarized Cities: The City of Jerusalem - Research Paper Example

 The city of Jerusalem The city of Jerusalem is commonly referred to as the Holy City because of its ties to three major faiths: Christianity, Judaism and Islam. The city has the greatest concentration of holy places in the world and remains at a focal point for pilgrimage to many of the world’s worshippers. There has always been an underlying conflict in Jerusalem due to the fact that the city’s symbolic and strategic role has made it a desired capital for two national communities, the Jews and the Palestinians. This conflict had further been fuelled by the establishment of the British rule after the collapse of the ottoman rule. The fact that the Palestinians were defeated by the British and later on by other Jewish states led to the influence from the neighboring Arab states (Bollens, 1999). This intrusive international interest by other nations based on the fact on the religious history of the town has remained a constant characteristic of Jerusalem politics. Presently there are deep seated ethnic and national divisions in the city that remain unsolved to date. Under the British rule, there was the outlining of the Balfour declaration which supported the establishment of Jerusalem as home for the Jews. This increased tension between the two countries given that both populations of these communities were nearly equal, towards the end of the British rule there was extensive hostilities between the two communities and this led to the pan Arab invasion in May 1948. The Arabs were defeated and had to flee from the Jewish community. However, despite all these factors, Israel declared Jerusalem as its capital in the year 1949. After the war, Israel annexed off some land along the west bank. This area was and is still viewed by Palestinians as the capital of a future Palestinian state. The government is building a wall that will separate the west bank and east Jerusalem and even though the government claims that it is for protection purposes, this act has been viewed by the Palestinians as an act f oppression. Currently, Jerusalem is a symbol of the Israeli Arab conflict and the varying religious and political aspirations of the Palestinians and the Israelis. There have been talks in regards to shared sovereignty between the two communities, nut these talks usually collapse along the way. On the contrary, there has been more radicalization from both sides with the emergence of militant groups such as the Palestinian intifada and the Islamic group Hamas. Given that the political side seems to engage in acts of discrimination against the Palestinians, this conflict is set to continue for a long time in future (Bollens, 1999). The security situation in the area has been made worse by the use of modern warfare techniques with Jerusalem being the target of long range missile attacks. It is common for terrorists attack to occur within the city and this makes it a very dangerous place to live. Israel as a nation is also keen to improve its military investments and this implies that peace is still a long way off. West bank/ Nicosia This city has for a long time been the capital city for various factions such as the venetians, ottomans and the British. Due to the imposed constitution, and ethnic tensions between the two main ethnic groups, Cyprus dissolved into conflict and the subsequent separation of the various communities in the year 1963. Under the British rule, the two communities were governed separately that further increased the ethnic differences between the two communities over a number of generations. This was between the Turkish and the Greeks in the country. After independence, the resulting negotiations left the citizens with a constitution that they could not put to actual practice. According to the constitution, the president was to be Greek and the vice president was to be Turkish. Both had veto powers that when implemented resulted in the government being at a deadlock. Given this situation, an army could not be formed, and therefore each side has its own armed faction. This led to a bloody conflict between these two communities in December 1963 in what came to be known as the bloody Christmas. The next few years were marked with inter communal violence with the Turkish community living in enclaves. However, life in these enclaves was made worse by the fact that the president went ahead to impose a blockade that limited their food supplies and made their life more difficult. Nicosia is the base for the longest peace keeping mission in the world. United Nations troops have been in the country since 1964 and have set up a buffer zone that runs all through the town (Bollens, 1999). The international community has tried to seek help for the Nicosia situation with other agencies funding programs that will lead to re integration of the two communities. Although some progress has been made, this process is still far from complete. The borders between the two factions have been closed for years and only few people have been able to move across to the other side. In 2003, the president opened a section of the crossing that enabled people to move between the two sections. Despite this project, very few people on either side have found a reason to cross this opening. This conflict has gone on for an extended period of time and its solution has to involve external parties. The security situation has resulted in many countries imposing travel warnings to their citizens who are set to travel to Nicosia; this is because of the reason that the security situation is volatile in the city and can deteriorate into renewed ethnics at any given time. Such conflicts usually lead to fatalities and massive loss of property. Belfast/ Northern Ireland This is one of the major industrial cities in Ireland. What has made this town unique is its history of ethnic tensions and religious segregation that has existed in this town for the last 200 years. From the beginning, Belfast has been home to settlers of Anglican, Catholic and Presbyterian religions. By the year 1800, there emerged a radicalized Presbyterian group that was opposed to the Anglican following who formed majority of the citizens of Belfast. In the early 1900s as catholic and protestant followers flooded the city their secretariat struggles reemerged in the urban settlements. These divisions were to emerge in a political struggle over Irish home rule. Belfast thus became the center of an ulster union movement which was opposed to home rule for the catholic majority in Ireland. Following the end of the wars in the mid-90s popular ethnic struggles that were aimed at reclaiming territories were intensified in various forms such as marches, parades and murals. During the peace process, efforts were made to try and address the history of the conflict and to rebrand the city as a place for new investment Despite the perceived notion that there is peace and development within the city, there still exists segregation in certain areas that are characterized by peace walls and social depravation that is prevalent among the working class communities. Given this scenario in Belfast, the future cannot be easily determined (Bollens, 1999). This is because there still exists deep ethno national conflicts that might interfere with the power sharing agreements that were formed in 1998. There is still opposition by the unionists for having to share power with the nationalist party. In Belfast, there is evidence of a major political and physical transition. Although the violence might have ended there is a change in the physical landscape particularly along the waterfront and in the city center. The population of the town is divided between the two major communities and the city council strives to develop a shared city. Despite this transition, there is still evidence of deep rooted segregation particularly among the working class communities. This implies that even though the war has ended, Belfast has still not escaped from the conflict and if nothing is done the war can erupt at any time. For the second part of the question I will analyze the conflict in the City of Nicosia. Structure of Nicosia The conflict in Nicosia has become symbolized by the circumference of this walled city. This buffer zone that was established by the UN has the duty of dividing the island into two separate republics. It cuts through the town’s historic town center and the encircling Venetian walls from the 16th.  What is different about Nicosia is the way in which the urban setup offers such a clear graphic representation as a result of the conflict.  It presents an image of this perfect circle of the Venetian Walls that have been divided by the markings of the buffer zone this gives the perfect representation to the divergent national views of the two republics. The riverbed streets that were a common point for the two communities is now encased within the United Nations controlled Buffer Zone. These buffers were once the symbols of multiculturalism and unity; they are now the glaring image of the division. Nicosia is the capital city of the two communities, divided through the historic centers by this inaccessible land (Bollens, 1999). Internal structuring of the city itself Venetian and Ottoman Nicosia Initially, the city of Nicosia was contained entirely within the 16th century Venetian Walls. Currently, the city now includes suburbs that extend to the Mesaoria plain.  After the removal of the Venetians by the Ottomans in 1571, the city was enclosed within the Venetian walls, with the newly settled dominantly Turkish population living in the north of the riverbed, and the Greeks settling into the south. Other minority groups inclusive of Armenians and Latin settled near the western side into the city at Paphos Gate. Historically the city of Nicosia was divided into a Turkish north and a Greek south. This division was the rule in the city of Nicosia. The only exception was a Turkish enclave to the south, and one Greek enclave in the north.  Greek Cypriot, Turkish Cypriot, and mixed villages were scattered throughout the rest of Cyprus, both in the north as well as the south of the island.  When the Ottomans came to the city, they established the Lusignan palace to the north. This became their administrative hub. The northern area was occupied by Turkish settlers. The south was occupied by the Greek Cypriots and it is no surprise that the Archbishop of the Orthodox Church is located in this area (Bollens, 1999). The riverbed of the Pedios River was the one boundary that divided these two communities as it flowed right through the city center before the venetians diverted it. This riverbed remained open until the British came in the later years and closed it on hygienic grounds. These streets along the riverbed were the basis for the east west route that ran through the main city. The route connected the Famagusta Gate in the east to the Paphos gate towards the west. It is on such streets that all the citizens of Cyprus could meet together since there were various businesses belonging to people of all the various nationalities, the Greeks, Turkish and the Armenians. Ironically, these once common trading areas have fallen within the scope of the buffer zones and what was once an important tool in bringing people together is now used to divide them. British Nicosia 1878 – 1960 When the British arrived in 1878, the city began to develop beyond the walls when they started to build their administrative buildings and residences towards the south of the old city. It is at this this time that the Venetian walls were divided; initially it was by an initial opening to the south. This was by the construction of a wooden bridge. This became known as the Eleftheria Square, and was used to link the old and the new city. The town continued to operate within the walls until the process of suburbanization started in the 195os. This gained additional impetus as a result of the conflict and the obvious division of the city. This ultimately led to the development of new settlement areas in areas out of the city. When the British constructed the Eleftheria square, there emerged a commercial corridor that ran along the Ledra Street up to the northern gate, referred to as the Kyrenia Gate. This still exists and at the very center of it is the Lokmaci checkpoint, opened in 2008. This is the only crossing point that was within the old city. Divided City, 1958 – Present Day The widespread division that is evident in Nicosia started in 1958 when wire fence was put up, it became more long term when the Turkish forces invaded the island in 1974. This was when the city had already been divided into two sides and so these divisions became permanent. The Venetian walls that are a dominant feature of the town were built in 1567. Ideally it could have been a grand setting in the middle of the town, however, the division disrupted the natural geometry and instead of a circle, the center was divided into 2 peripheries. Each of which became segregated, the modern city plan of the city is based on this deformation. There were security concerns and coupled with this division and the emerging suburbanization, the citizens left the old city and moved to the north and the south. The only part of the old city that is popular is Ledra street, new parts of the city are more popular with the people and even massive rehabilitation projects in these areas has not been enough to entice people to return to the old city (Bollens, 1999). However, attitudes in regards to the old city are changing as indicated in the last few years. There has been an increase in the popularity of several parts within the walled city, more so in the Greek Cypriot south. The population of the old city mainly comprises of migrants. 80% of this population is from the North, coming in from Turkey. The southern side is filled with a large migrant population from Africa, Asia and Eastern Europe. The main presence along the buffer zone is several light industrial workshops; these exist on both sides of this city.  This area is occupied by car mechanics, furniture makers, car mechanics, and other trades have moved in to operate at the center of the city while occupying abandoned buildings as their workshops.  The opening of the Ledra Street checkpoint at Ledra had a major impact; it resulted in the shrinking of the de facto Buffer Zone at the city center. It provided a linkage that was very necessary between existing commercial areas in the north and the south. The future The problem in Cyprus has many more participants than the Turkish and the Greeks. External countries such as the United States have tried to lead negotiations so as to reduce tension between the two NATO powers, Greece and turkey. Their influence is however still felt on the island by British sovereign bases that are present on the island. This country is strategically located and as such it has military importance to international powers.Following a referendum, the Greek side became a member state of the European Union. 65% of the population voted. The fact that one side joined the European Union further widened the gap between the two countries; despite all this, residents can easily get passports to access the other side with many more crossing the border on a regular basis for work engagements. As of 2008 there were fresh peace talks that hopes to take advantage of the absence of inter community conflicts presently. Policy options for urban peace building To ensure the promotion of peace, the government should develop a peace building policy that will reinforce these efforts. This will refocus and strengthen the already existing security policies. One policy that the governments can take to promote peace is power sharing. This involves sharing of power between various opposing groups. A policy should be put in place where by all the parties to a conflict are involved in the leadership process so that they feel they are being adequately represented. This does not imply that they should be given the mandate over key government departments; on the contrary they should just be given an equal platform to air their view. These factions should also be included in the decision making process so that the policies that are made are all inclusive and cover the interests of a majority of the population. Decentralization involves the act of distributing the influence of power. This is a very important step when it comes to promoting peace in urban areas. The importance of devolved forms of government has been established in various conflict stricken areas around the globe. Governments of conflicting countries should most probably establish a committee to coordinate such an activity and guide its implementation. Even though there should be decentralization of certain functions of the government, the core government functions still remain at the main office. For decentralization to be effective it must cover a whole range of areas such as administrative decentralization, political decentralization and even economic decentralization. Urban areas have a diverse mix of people and as such people should be encouraged to mix. These varieties of people constitute an intercultural mix that can play a very important role in regards to promotion of peace in the urban areas. Policies should be put in place to ensure that people are not segregated. Segregation tends to create animosity between several communities and this should be discouraged at all costs. People should be able to settle in communal areas and work together so that they learn to tolerate each other’s cultures. It is only by embracing such policies that people can be able to co-exist with each other peacefully and therefore cannot begin fighting each other over non issues such as the ethnic or religious basis. There should be accountability and transparency in the operations of the leading authority. Certain activities can be undertaken so as to promote peace within the urban areas. This can be done by promoting higher levels of participation, transparency and accountability within the governance structures so that the aggrieved parties can feel represented by the ruling elite. Certain activities that can be undertaken in this regards includes representation of people from various backgrounds in the decision making processes and other key oversight functions. The skills of the local authorities should be developed to give them the ability to participate in vital processes like policy formation. Problems and obstacles urban conditions have presented to peace building There has been an increase in segregated settlement patterns within urban centers. In urban areas, everybody does as they please. People are allowed to settle in any parts of the cities they decide without any restriction. The result is that people who are inclined towards certain ideologies tend to stay together and this fosters stronger bonds within such groups. When different groups of people who have different ideologies settle in grouped settlements there is the possibility of the eruption of conflict. In Cyprus, the two opposing tribes have settled on different sides of a buffer zone and any contact between them was previously restricted because it resulted in war and the subsequent death of some citizens. Although the citizens have a right to do as they please, this should be done in such a manner that does not endanger the lives of other citizens in any way. Although a large variety of people is important in the development of peace, this same mix also hinders the development of social stability. A characteristic feature of urban centers is the presence of a diverse mix of people. Urban areas bring together people from various ethnic and religious backgrounds. Each of these people has their own set of customs and a series of regulations that they abide to and guides their daily actions. As expected with such groups there will always be extremists. These will hold onto their perceived views and can influence others to cause a disruption of peace. Government’s Approach Towards these Urban Attributes The government’s response to these urban attributes has been to increase the activities that it can control such as policing. This is by increasing the number of police patrols and the total number of policemen so as to be on the lookout for any forms of violence that may exist. Experience shows that most violence in urban centers start from the informal settlements. This means that to prepare for rising insecurity there should be more intense vigilance in these areas. Alternatives for bettering inter- group relations in the city To ensure that it deals effectively with inter group relations, the government should embark on a civic education and public awareness drive. The main aim of such a drive is to notify the general public on a variety of issues such as good cohesion and tolerance. People should get the opportunity to interact with people from different cultures and fully understand their customs. It is only in this instance that people can fully appreciate their neighbors. Apart from learning about the cultures of the various people, there should be sensitization in regards to the dangers of conflicts. This can be by showing a documentary or photographic evidence that depicts the consequences of inter-ethnic or other forms of violence that may exist. The government can also introduce inter communal games. This will provide a platform where all the communities will congregate and participate in a common activity. The importance of this is that they will be able to interact freely and they can also develop friendships. To ensure that tighter bonds are built, teams should not be made of only one community or religious faction. The teams should be made of a mixture of people from various backgrounds. This is important as they can use this platform to operate as a team, to share experiences and to foster permanent friendships. It should be noted that proper relationships between the various communities is crucial for the economy to thrive. There should be a promotion of trade between the various ethnic groups as this will make them interact on a personal basis and develop trust among them. Commerce is important in driving the economy of countries and this should be promoted as it involves all the people within the city. No division should be allowed to drive people apart as this has a direct impact on the amount of business that they conduct between them. In conclusion, unless you experience war, one can never really know the value of peace. There are many cities in the world that are constantly in war and this disrupts the lives of the people while also leading to the loss of life. It is important that the whole world will rise up and ensure that such acts come to an end. In cases of conflict like this, it is the weak members of the society who suffer the most. There is no excuse for war and the world must stand up and ensure peace prevails in all nations across the globe. References: Bollens, S. A. (1999). Urban peace building in divided societies: Belfast and Johannesburg. Boulder [u.a.: Westview Press. Read More