Ethnic Displacement of Africville - Case Study Example

Ethnic displacement: Africville Introduction The ethnic community of Africville was founded on the shores of the Bedford Basic in Nova Scotia, Canadaand traces its origins to refugees from the ‘Anglo-American War of 1812’. Most of these refugees were former black slaves who hailed from the Chesapeake region of the United States and had fought for the British Empire in hopes of gaining freedom for their services. Clairmont notes that the settlement was established much earlier during the mid-eighteenth century and was brought there by the British for farming purposes1. From the very outset, the black residents of Africville faced racial discrimination at the hands of the white population who were a minority in that area. While the settlement existed within the boundaries of the city of Halifax, the residents there were mostly restricted from the mainstream. In other words, Africville simply didn’t exist in the core fabric of the city2. As a result, the community was largely neglected by the local authorities and there was not much effort expended towards its economic or social development. The people of Africville were thus forced to fend for themselves. The town did not have access to basic healthcare services, was not connected to the electricity grid and did not have any metal roads. On the other hand, other parts of Halifax continued to expand and develop at a rapid pace. Nelson notes that protests and altercations between Africvilleans and the authorities of Halifax was a regular sight over issues related to clean drinking water or sewage3. As a result, local residents always had some profound health implications. For instance, Africvilleans had to source their water from dirty wells that were highly contaminated and had to be boiled prior to consumption. The issues in Africville only compounded with the expansion of Halifax. To add to the woes of the residents, Africville had turned into a destination for a prison, waste dumps and a slaughter by the 1850s4. This gradual exploitation of the community over the next 10 years transformed it into a slum with people scavenging the waste for anything valuable. By 1870, Africvilleans were also exposed to more diseases by the establishment of a hospital specializing in infectious diseases5. According to the 1851 census records from the Halifax civic archives, the population of Africville was restricted to a mere 30 individuals belonging to eight families. By the 1870s, the population had increased manifold and the settlement boasted of a school and a church in addition to a couple of stores. Despite its immense problems, the locality consisted of some beautifully decorated homes and the mainstay of the local populace was fishing. The onset of the First World War provided enough jobs to sustain the settlement’s roughly 300 people. Another notable mention of Africville can be found in the famous Halifax Explosion which remained unsurpassed as the biggest manmade bomb until the events of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 19456. By the 1920s, Africvilleans were employed in the surrounding factories as laborers, factory workers and porters. The women also worked in these factories although they were largely employed by industries requiring less strenuous labor like chocolate manufacturing and cotton mills. Many Africvilleans also engaged in farming and animal husbandry as a source of additional income. Africville also boasts of a number of eminent personalities such as singer Portia White ad George Dixon, a noted heavyweight boxer7. This paper describes some of these aspects that affected Africville in greater detail and analyze the strong community values that existed among local residents. Furthermore, there are also some clear insights provided into racial discrimination that eventually destroyed the community. The final section of this paper details the current status of the compensation that is being demanded by Africville’s residents for the demolition of their settlement during the 1960s. Development versus Oppression The city of Halifax witnessed a 200% increase in population between 1850 and 1920 and also enjoyed a sustained economic and industrial boom during this period. While the entire city was improving in terms of standard of living, the community of Africville bore the brunt of the negative side-effects of this growth. Halifax’s city planner allowed industries to come up along the Bedford Basin even if it meant the encroachment of certain residential parts of Africville. Perkyns notes that factories producing hazardous chemicals like fertilizers and steel were allowed to operate freely without taking the consideration of Africvilleans into account8. Other entities such as a coal handling facility and a slaughterhouse came up soon after and engaged in blatant encroachment of the settlement. During the 1850s, many Africvilleans lost their home to acquisition by the administration for the construction of railway tracks. These tracks ran right through the community and did not have any signal lights along the entire length. These violations put residents at risk whenever they had to move from one side of the settlement to the other. The railroad also polluted the ground water and rendered it undrinkable. By now, most of the houses resembled as ghostlike shanties. Botica states that the ‘Halifax Civic Planning Commission’ did indeed acknowledge that constructing this railroad would damage the immediate environment, and yet chose to ignore the problems introduced into Africville as a result9. Africville also suffered from a lack of political leadership and did not have any notable influence in the economic and social affairs of the city. Most of the residents were not very educated and had very little scope for upward mobility. Nevertheless, a strong sense of belongingness and community persisted and was symbolized by the local ‘Seaview United Baptist Church’. This church was established in 1849 by the noted Richard Preston and would exist until 1968 when it was eventually demolished by the Halifax City Council10. Consistent racial segregation and inequality led to absolute poverty in Africville. Residents were confined to working as temporary laborers and workers at meager wages. The standards of education at the local school were so distraught and deficient that only 5 out of the 140 registered students managed to finish their tenth grade11. Basic amenities like roads and garbage disposal remained a distant dream for the residents although they paid regular taxes. Investments that were pouring into Halifax on account of an industrial boom were largely directed at other parts of Halifax. Africville, on the other hand, did not receive any funds despite the city’s efforts at modernization. Civil neglect, unequal opportunities and institutional discrimination over a prolonged period of 150 years reduced Africville to a slum and shantytown. Lack of power and the subjugation created through racism allowed the city authorities to use the settlement for services that were not preferred for operation elsewhere. For instance, the sewage disposal pits that were initially situated at the south end of the city were abruptly shifted to Africville in 1859. Hospitals dealing with deadly infectious diseases like plague, typhoid and malaria were built here one after another over the next 50 years12. Finally, a slaughterhouse and a stone crushing unit formed the outer periphery of the settlement. The city authorities also felt free to shift garbage dump sites from other areas to Africville, thus adding to the woes of the residents. McGill attributes this discrimination to the policy adopted by the city council over the utilization of the area under the settlement13. Archival records show that Africville’s lands were planned to be used for industrial purposes14. With growing industrialization, the city council came up with many strategies to expropriate land from the local residents who had been living there for many generations. Such preferential treatment towards the industry at the expense of Africvilleans can be understood from the following excerpt of the council’s policy during the early 1900s: The Africville portion of Campbell Road will always be an industrial district and it is desirable that industrial operations should be assisted in any way that is not prejudiced to the interest of the public; in fact, we may be obliged in the future to consider the interests of industry first.15 The above line clearly states that the city administrators felt no obligation to consult the residents of Africville prior to taking any decision on their lands simply because they were poor, black and downtrodden. As mentioned earlier, Africvilleans did not have any influence and remained powerless to the expropriation of their property. However, Cutrara suggests that Africvilleans frequently petitioned the city council for obtaining amenities like paved roads, drinking water, electricity, sewage disposal and street lighting16. None of these requests, including the basic right to have a cemetery, were entertained and turned down by the administration. There is also evidence to suggest that Africvilleans made every effort to improve their community’s living standards by adhering to all laws and regulations. Weatra notes these inadequacies as one of the major factors that allowed the city council to term Africville a slum, and provided the pretext to consider bulldozing Africville and forcing the relocation of its inhabitants17. What is even more disturbing is that rather than discuss such a move with the residents, the council plainly notified the residents of its decision and went ahead with this proposal despite several pleas and petitions from the residents. Professor Claremont observes the following based on his analysis of Halifax’s city councils during this era: “They believed that the destruction of the community was inevitable, even desirable, and that interests of residents could best be served by insuring that they had the best possible chance to start a new life elsewhere. Faced with the growing support for relocation, most residents seem to have become resigned to the demolition of their community.”18 During the 1960s, the city council introduced the hugely unpopular drive of relocating Africville’s residents under the scheme of urban renewal. While much was promised in terms of compensation and rehabilitation, nothing was done after the eviction to help the former residents. In fact, Africvilleans were deprived of basic needs such as healthcare, employment and social security following this infamous event. Much of this is discussed in the next section19. Demolition of Africville During the 1960s, as part of its urban renewal policy, the Halifax city council began plans to reclaim the lands in Africville for the development of local industry. A recommendation was drafted in 1962 that called for the removal of all dilapidated and drab houses that characterized Africville20. A social worker was hired by the council to negotiate with Africville’s residents and determine a compensation price. This entire process was completed by mid-1964 and the first batch of relocations took place immediately thereafter. By 1970, all of the 400-odd people had been relocated permanently from the settlement. Razack says that the city council also targeted the Seaview United Baptist Church, which had served as the spiritual and religious guide for the entire community for over 100 years21. The demolition was done at 3 AM in the morning to prevent any serious backlash. He further notes that the feeling of having lost this important emblem of their community persists to this day and remains one of the strongest bonds uniting the former residents in their claim for fair compensation. In addition, many residents were away at the hospital during the time of demolition and were not intimated properly by the authorities. The rest who were present in their homes were granted only a few hours to pack their belongings before the bulldozers razed their homes to the ground. To everyone’s surprise, the site where Africville one stood has never been used for its intended purpose i.e., industrial development. Instead, the site has been converted into a park known as ‘Seaview Memorial Park’. Africvilleans gather each year in this park at the site where the church once stood. Such inaction on the part of the city council has convinced many that there was never any plan to convert Africville into an industrial area. Juang alleges that the sole motive behind this decision was racial hatred and the tendency to destroy the soul of Africville22. He also argues that the city council was merely obsessed with dispersing the community’s black population, for whom it had no regard. The age long oppression of the community, racial segregation and lack of any development incentives provided the necessary rationale to destroy the settlement. The hatred borne among people from other parts of the city and their scornful regard for Africville is apparent in the following newspaper excerpt: "Soon Africville will be but a name. And in the not too distant future that too, mercifully, will be forgotten."23 Perseverance Tatterie uses similar examples from history on the black population to suggest that the demotion was meant to erase everything related to Africville24. Despite the council’s best efforts, this has not been realized. Regardless of their position and geographical location, Africvilleans have managed to sustain the memories of the injustices meted out to their community in the name of development. Today, the Africville Genealogical Society (AGS) campaigns for the rights of Africvilleans and their descendants and has achieved much since its inception. The AGS was provided an opportunity to present its cause at the 2001 United Nations World Conference against Racism25. Residents and their descendants have been demanding fair compensation and a memorial at the site since many years. The AGS was founded in 1983 to take up these issues with the city authorities and the state and federal governments of Canada. The AGS also ensures that the moment towards its cause is sustained by organizing several awareness campaigns throughout the year. Though its consistent efforts, Africville was recognized in 1996 by the federal government as a historical landmark of national significance26. However, the issue of compensation and acknowledgment of the injustice meted out to Africvilleans remains an outstanding task. As a consequence, the AGS filed a civil lawsuit in 1996 against the city of Halifax seeking recognition and compensation for the forced relocation of its members from Africville27. There have been several efforts since then between the AGS and the Halifax regional municipality (HRM) (which emerged from the Halifax City Council in 1996) to reach an out-of-court settlement. The HRM was instrumental in developing a strategy for settling the litigation and the construction of an appropriate memorial for the settlement. However, it was soon realized that broader participation from the city, state and federal governments was necessary in order for this approach to succeed. It took over 4 more years before such a committee comprising these stakeholders was finally established in 2005. Based on prior approvals from all the wings of the government, the AGS hired consultants to oversee the preparation of a feasibility study and develop a business strategy for the reconstruction of the Seaview church. Plans were also mooted for the construction of a cultural centre at the site that would depict the entire story of the settlement. The consultants presented their findings and recommendations to the steering committee of the AGS in late 2006. These recommendations suggested the construction of the church at the very location where it once stood and the establishment of the cultural site at an adjacent location28. Most recently, the steering committee decided in 2009 to undertake this project in two distinct phases. The first phase consisted of the reconstruction of the church while the second comprised the set up of the interpretive center. Both projects were entrusted to the Black Business Initiative (BBI) that was specially formulated to oversee their completion. A settlement was finally reached in early 2010 between the HRM and the AGS so that the construction could commence and the residents could be compensated for their suffering. The terms of this settlement include the transfer of ownership of the site, where the church and interpretive centre are to come up, to AGS and a $3 million fund to support the construction29. The AGS was also allowed to rename the Seaview Park to its original title ‘Africville’ and was given powers to offer employment contracts for the maintenance of the site. The government of Nova Scotia formally took responsibility for the injustice meted out to Africville’s residents and established a dedicated ‘African Affairs’ department within the state government. Sustained efforts by the AGS and growing public support eventually culminated in 2010 with a formal apology by Mayor Peter Kelly to the former residents and descendants of Africville for the misdeeds of the Halifax City Council30. By apologizing to residents, the city municipality accepted the fact that they were evicted involuntarily without any justifiable reason on the pretext of development and progressive relocation. However, the new beginning promised to Africvilleans has not culminated so far. Many still fa0ce impending issues like social stigma, unemployment and inadequate living conditions. Many have been living in congested public housing since their eviction from Africville in the 1960s. Public opinion over the government action on Africville and its demolition remains fairly divided to this day. On one hand, some believe that the eviction was another example of white supremacy and their disregard for the residents. In contrast, there are others who view this action as a positive signal aimed at providing education and employment to the African community besides providing them an opportunity to integrate with the mainstream31. If the events over the past 60 years are to be analyzed, the only outcome from this action has been a loss of livelihood and shelter for the blacks and lack of any support from the government. Glasbeek notes that the biggest victim of this demolition was the community and the support system that Africvilleans had so successfully established despite the oppression and segregation from the larger society32. The demolition of Africville is regarded as one of the profound incidents of racial discrimination in the history of Canada. But surprisingly, Nelson says that the average Canadian does not have much knowledge that such an event took place33. Africville has emerged as a rallying point for Canada’s black community in their struggle against racism and campaign towards social equality. The incidents at Africville and its history have been the subject of several documentaries and research studies. For instance, a documentary titled ‘Stolen from Africville’ was produced in 2007 that highlighted many interesting facts about the settlement and its volatile history that were unheard of previously34. In fact, Nelson claims that this documentary was one of the compelling factors that forced the mayor of Halifax to issue an official apology to Africville’s residents and provide adequate funds for the construction of the memorial35. Today, the town serves as an important reminder of Canada’s racial history and has been declared a national heritage site. Conclusion The preceding sections have detailed some of the various factors and events that led to the demolition of Africville and the resulting eviction of its residents. This racial discrimination went unnoticed for a long period of time until it was projected appropriately by the affected people through sustained efforts of campaign and public support. By 2010, the public perception on racism in Canada had changed so much that the mayor of Halifax was forced to issue a public apology to the community for the forceful resettlement of Africvilleans during the 1960s. While this is a small step, it nevertheless highlights an important step for the transformation of racial segregation and slavery in Canadian history. The apology came alongside a settlement with the AGS that included a $3 million compensation for the reconstruction of the church. Additionally, the AGS was allocated more than 3 acres of land on the original site for the development of a Seaview Park. Most importantly, a new unit meant to look into African affairs was created within the Human Resources ministry of the Government of Nova Scotia. Although an apology was made by the Halifax Regional Council, Hamilton believes that the administration has cleverly avoided the larger issue of racism in the region36. Rather than provide individual compensation to every affected resident or family, the government chose to award a wholesome contribution aimed at restoring the site into a memorial. He further notes that unlike its neighbour (United States), Canada often hesitates to engage in a public discourse on issues related to racism and slavery37. As a result, many of the outstanding issues in this area will take many more years to resolve. At the end of the day, Africville’s residents have shown strong commitment to their cause and have displayed a sense of unity in their struggle to showcase the injustice meted out to them. Today, Africville has become a precursor to other issues affecting ethnic minorities in Canada and has emerged as a motivating beacon for similar movements. The AGS is also seeking an enquiry into the events leading to the demolition and is seeking justice against those responsible for these acts38. The primary issue at the core of the Africville incident – racism – is a societal and systemic issue that continues to linger in Canadian society. As such, there needs to be a strong resolve on the part of all stakeholders to address these issues. The lessons learnt from the case of Africville can serve as a bright example for other movements that are working towards similar recognition of basic human rights. References 1. Alexander, Ken. Towards freedom: the African-Canadian experience. University of Virginia, 2006. 2. Botica, Suzy. Africville: forced eviction. New York: Scholastic, 2007. 3. Clairmont, Donald. Africville: the life and death of a Canadian Black community. Toronto: Canadian Scholars Press, 1999. 4. Cutrara, Samantha. Historic Space: a transformative model of history education. Library and Archives Canada = Bibliothèque et Archives Canada, 2009. 5. Erickson, Paul. Halifaxs North End: an anthropologist looks at the city. University of Michigan, 2006. 6. Fleming, Thomas. Deviant designations: crime, law, and deviance in Canada. University of California, 2003. 7. Glasbeek, Amanda.. Moral regulation and governance in Canada: history, context and critical issues. Toronto: Canadian Scholars Press, 2006. 8. Glenday, Daniel. Modernization and the Canadian state. University of Michigan, 2008. 9. Hamilton, Ruth. Routes of passage: rethinking the African Diaspora. University of Michigan, 2007. 10. Henry, Frances. Ethnicity in the Americas. University of Texas, 2006. 11. Juang, Richard. Africa and the Americas: culture, politics, and history : a multidisciplinary encyclopaedia. London: Routledge, 2007. 12. Macionis, John. Seeing ourselves: classic, contemporary, and cross-cultural readings in sociology. Toronto: Pearson Education Canada, 2003. 13. McGill, Dennis. Africville relocation report: supplement. Pennsylvania State University, 2009. 14. Nelson, Jennifer. Razing Africville: a geography of racism. University of Toronto Press, 2008. 15. Nelson, Mark. The condition of the Negroes of Halifax City, Nova Scotia: a study. Northwestern University, 2011. 16. Orkin, David. Nova Scotia. London: Bradt Travel Guides, 2010. 17. Perkyns, Dorothy. Last Days in Africville. Montreal: Dundurn Press Ltd., 2006. 18. Razack, Sherene. Race, space, and the law: unmapping a white settler society. Toronto: Between The Lines, 2003. 19. Tattrie, Jon. The hermit of Africville: the life of Eddie Carvery. Vancouver: Pottersfield Press, 2010. 20. Tepperman, Lorne. Readings in sociology: an introduction. New York: McGraw Hill, 2008. 21. Walker, James. A history of Blacks in Canada: a study guide for teachers and students. Canberra: Ministry of State Multiculturalism, 2008. 22. Weatra, Laura. Faces of environmental racism: confronting issues of global justice. London: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001. 23. Welldon, Christine. The Children of Africville. Montreal: Nimbus Publishing, 2009. 24. Winks, Robin. The Blacks in Canada: a history. McGill-Queens Press, 1997. 25. Nelson, Jennifer. Panthers or thieves: Radicalized knowledge and the regulation of Africville. Journal of Canadian Studies, 2006. 26. Loo, Tina. Africville and the dynamics of state power in post-war Canada. Acadiensis, 2008. Read More