Race Redistricting and Representation - Essay Example

Alexis- de Tocqueville was a French philosopher, thinker cum historian, who studied in depth the evolution of America and published ‘Democracy of America’ in 1835 (Tocqueville, 2006). During his travels to America in early 19th century, he saw the rapidly changing socio-economic paradigms in the emerging new American society which was moving towards equality and freedom. The ‘tumult’ that he saw everywhere was the change within the social fabric. The religion in the southern American colonies promoted racial discrimination whereas, in the more emancipated northern America, people of non white origin had started enjoying rights and privileges that were hitherto denied to them. The worst feature of democracy in America was that though it gave equal rights to people, but the people who were financially better off had still more opportunities and were able to exploit their money power to gain favors with authorities. Alexis’ views are still relevant because money still has the power to significantly influence the issues and decisions of the people in authority. Tocqueville was primarily disillusioned with strife ridden France where the supremacy of Church was being challenged by French people at large. He came to America in 1831 to study its socio-political history to find its success as a successful democracy. M. De Tocqueville (2006) says ‘Amongst the novel objects that attracted my attention during my stay in the United States, nothing struck me more forcibly than the general equality of conditions’. He studied the socio-cultural and political structure of the regions across its geographical boundary spanning northern and southern states. In the eighteenth and nineteenth century in America, the color of the skin played a major role in the social status. The whites had maintained a racial divide within the society through deliberate use of powerful lobby of the whites and financial advantages that they enjoyed over their less privileged counterparts, the Native Americans. The blacks were not allowed to participate in social activities and even education was denied to them so that they would remain unequal socially and economically. The Southern colonies comprised of Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland and Virginia. The British settlers came in search of riches and were lured by the gold and other precious metals and rich fertile land of the new world. The regional economy basically consisted of farming and trading of goods especially deerskins. The indentured labor consisting of European workers, worked as bonded laborers who were freed after several years so as to payoff their passage to a new country. They worked in labor intensive tobacco plantations along with Native Americans who later refused to work because they were afflicted with diseased like tuberculosis etc. which were brought by the settlers. The northern colony comprised of Quebec, Massachusetts, Florida, New York, Nova Scotia and the rest. The colony was characterized by the presence of a number of Europeans settlers which included French settlers, Dutch, Spanish and the British settlers. French settlers brought in the concept of self governance and religious freedom which was denied in the regions governed by the British settlers who tried to impose strict rules and revenue regulations, against which the Native Americans rebelled. The protestant dominated the British settlers and like southerners women did not enjoy much freedom. The Native Americans enjoyed much autonomy. The northern colony was much isolated initially but later, Spanish hold was weakened by the French and the English settlers. The English and the Dutch pirates also became a big threat to the Spanish who had deliberately isolated the northern territory against other European settlers so that it could claim all its valuables and precious metals like gold, silver etc. The climatic conditions also imposed several hardships for the Native Americans who could not overcome their poverty and deteriorating general well being. Witchcraft and puritanical values dominated the social fabric of North America in the middle 18th and 19th century. Tocqueville (2006) was quite skeptic of American constitution that was ‘governed by remote authority… still the political advantages which the Americans derive from their system would induce me to prefer it to the contrary plan’. But he was proved wrong. The postulates of American constitution are visionary and have decentralized the function to promote democratic processes across its states so that they were able to enforce the tenets of American constitution effectively. Racial differences were very apparent in southern American states whereas the northern American colonies had considerably moved forward in terms of black population enjoying more rights and privileges. In 1971, the introduction of bill of rights and other constitutional amendments paved way for abolition of slavery (Washington, internet). The attitude of the Native Americans started undergoing rapid transformation as the non white population started asserting for their rights and became more visible in political, religious, social and economic arena. In the contemporary times also, the non white population of America has to fight against racial prejudices, but their support has significantly increased. Tocqueville (2006) laments that ‘In aristocracies rulers sometimes endeavor to corrupt the people—In democracies rulers frequently show themselves to be corrupt’ but at the same time, asserts that ‘America is the only country in which it has been possible to witness the natural and tranquil growth of society, and where the influences exercised on the future condition of states by their origin is clearly distinguishable’. He was also witness to the feminist movement in America. The modern feminist movement is but an effort of the women to prove their caliber and a platform to showcase their intelligent approach and apply informed choices in areas that were hitherto considered male bastions! In the modern context it can be stated that ‘social value of feminism is that of equality between men and women, which in turn leads to an emphasis on the idea of social justice with regards to financial independence, citizenship rights, paid employment and social welfare’ (Fergusson, Hughes & Neal, 2004, p.136). In the contemporary times, the changing perception of gender equality has been the major element that has considerably narrowed the economic disparity and broadened the equity horizon. The reduced discrimination in job allocation and affirmative actions in workplace have encouraged gender participation at all levels and thereby reduced economic disparity in wages amongst the working population. Post WWII feminist movement was especially significant because it was targeted towards social institutions and demanded equal participation of the gender roles in the overall perspectives. Women activists showed though examples that they have not only have the intellectual capability but they also the inherent potential to compete in a man’s world and succeed. LeGates has gone on to say that ‘participants (of the various women’s movements) attacked the male monopoly of education, professional careers, and culture; married women’s economic and legal dependence; sexual and moral double standards; women’s lack of control over their bodies; the drudgery of housework; low wages; and, not least, women’s exclusion from politics’(LeGates p.197). The American civil war brought forth the focus on the changing role of women in the American society. The sporadic movement for empowering women actually started making significant stride after the WWII when the women had to go out of their homes to earn and support their families. The changing paradigms of socio-economic compulsion became the major propellant for the feminist movement in the West. Basic right for self expression and empowerment of women increasingly became a major issue for the societies at large. While Tocqueville might not have anticipated the ravages of civil war in America, it had changed the course of American history. Martin Luther King Junior is one of the greatest leaders of twentieth century who was able to make significant contribution to the civil rights of the African Americans. Though slavery was abolished by Abraham Lincoln, the ground reality for the blacks remained grim with rampant cases of racial discrimination. King became a strong advocate for the equal rights and worked towards garnering major public support for the rights of blacks and ethnic minorities (King, 1963). King’s non violent protests throughout America became a huge success. In 1961, the Albany movement against discriminatory practices became a landmark non violent demonstration because thousands of black and ethnic Americans protested against all authorities and establishments who practiced segregation. Martin Luther King fought for their rights that have resulted in reforms in the constitution and civil rights, facilitating equal rights and equal opportunities in all areas for all, including blacks and ethnic minority. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a huge step to prevent discriminatory practices in workplace and followed by Voting Rights Act of 1965 that brought in a new era of hope, opportunities and empowerment for the blacks in America. Indeed, the 20th century has seen increasing use of Pacifism for promoting peace and conflict resolution to avert war and violent outcome amongst nations, groups of people and individuals with differing ideologies and value system. The destructive repercussions of wars amongst the nations, culminating in two World Wars, have necessitated the use of pacific measures. In the political arena, various leaders have adopted different means to advocate peaceful resolution of conflicts. Non violent protests of legendary Indian leader, Mahatma Gandhi have inspired other iconic figures like Martin Luther King to fight against social injustices. In the recent times, negotiations, bilateral and non proliferation treaties amongst the nations have promoted peace. While nuclear disarmament has been considered as a positive step towards maintaining world peace, powerful nations like America, Russia etc. have used their nuclear power as effective deterrent measures. In the twentieth first century, the democratization process is greatly influenced by the advancing technology and rapid globalization. The tenets of advancing society have brought forth new equations that transcend cultural and national boundaries to encompass universal values and tolerance. Tilly (2001) explicitly argues that the process of democratization is inherent in the multidimensional and multifaceted interaction of the masses with the environmental factors that have significant impact and which are capable of influencing any future recourse to the formation of a new political equation. Harris, Chapman and McKenzie (2005) have asserted in their study that ‘At the turn of the twenty-first century blacks have achieved what was unthinkable in the early twentieth century. The number of blacks elected to public office in the nation has skyrocketed… providing members of the Congressional Black Caucus a bloc of votes that can influence legislative outcomes (Bositis 1994; Canon 1999; Tate 2003). The election of Barrack Obama as the first Black President of America has emphatically shown the increasing awareness and power of the ethnic minority. But the ground realities are entirely different with significant number of ethnic population still struggling to avail employment opportunities and striving for empowerment. The extent of inclusion of blacks in the mainstream American politics has unfortunately not matched the socio-economic upliftment of the black and ethnic population. Consequently, the ethnic population is still facing discriminatory practices and fighting for its constitutional rights. Demographic characteristics and socioeconomic status is one of the most important parameters that adversely impact their political participation. Education has been the major factor that promotes awareness for political participation. While the first generation immigrants may not have identified themselves with the mainstream population, the second generation onwards is more comfortable and easily assimilates to identify with the natives. The social networking issue contributes towards better understanding of the socially relevant issues and political paradigms of the times and therefore helps to evaluate and participate in the process. One can therefore conclude that Tocqueville’s perception of America has broadly remained a strong democracy that has withstood the adversity of time and racial differences. In the contemporary times, American society can be defined by its multi-cultural essence that incorporates a wide variety of nationals living together in harmony. The people from across different countries have not only successfully adapted to different cultures but at the same time, they have managed to hold their own distinct national character and culture. It has been able to strengthen its democratization process through its exemplary constitution and strong will to promote equality. It is true that intricacies of evolution and changes that occur within a society, undergoing the process of democratization, over a period of time, involve collective decision and public participation that provoke a constructive political and ideological transformation in the society, paving way for democratic values. (2047) Reference Bositis, A David. (1994). The Congressional Black Caucus in the 103rd Congress. Washington: Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies. Canon, David T. (1999). Race, Redistricting, and Representation: The Unintended Consequences of Black-Majority Districts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. LeGates, Marlene. (2001). In Their Time: A History of Feminism in Western Society. New York. Routledge. Fergusson, Ross; Hughes, Gordon; and Neal, Sarah. (2004) Welfare: from security to responsibility? in Hughes, Gordon and Fergusson, Ross (ed.) Ordering Lives: Family, Work and Welfare, London, Routledge/The Open University. King, Martin Luther Junior. (28 August, 1963). I have a Dream Speech. Available from: [Accessed 23 August 2010]. Harris, Fredrick C., Sinclair-Chapman, Valeria, and McKinzie, Brian D. (2005). Macrodynamics of Black Political Participation in the Post-Civil Rights Era. Journal of Politics. Vol.,67, 4, pp 1143-1163. Tate, Katherine. (2003). Black Faces in the Mirror: African-Americans and Their Representatives in the U.S. Congress. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Tilly, Charles. (2001). Mechanisms in Political Processes. Annual Review of Political Science, vol., 4, 21-41. Tocqueville, Alexis D. (2006). Democracy in America. Translated by Henry Reeve. Available from: [Accessed 23 August 2010]. Read More