History of Western Civilization: Key Terms - Assignment Example

Younggeun Kim David Byrne History 7 November 2009 History (History of Western Civilization) - Key Terms (25 Words Godfrey de Bouillon (b.1058-d.1100) He was the Duke of Lower Lorraine. He was a medieval Frankish knight and among the most important leaders of the First Crusade. He by no means turned out to be the first Latin ruler in Palestine in 1099. During his reign, Godfrey extended his authority as well as the overall successes of the crusaders. He joined the crusade in 1096, conquered Jerusalem and managed to capture it from the Muslims in 1099. Among his subjects, he was dubbed the defender of the Holy Sepulcher. Remarkable of him is that he made many truces with the Muslim cities adjacent to his kingdom and fought off an Egyptian attack. Being the second son of Eustace II, Count de Boulogne and Ida of Lorraine, Godfrey de Bouillon, according to many historians, never got married. It is reported that he fought off an Egyptian assault, meanwhile alienating other crusaders, yet left the kingdom weakened. 2. Saladin (b1138-d.1193) He was born into a very outstanding Kurdish family. Special of Saladin is that he made many extra-achievements during his reign. Not only did he lead Islamic opposition to the Franks and other European Crusaders in the Levant but he led the Muslims against the Crusaders as well. Growing up in Ba’lbek and Damascus, Saladin was seemingly an commonplace man, having much affinity for religious studies than military matters. Muslim and even Christian chroniclers liked his chivalrous behavior very much. Such a Muslim leader would become a prototypical example of chivalry and fighting. It is said that the crusader knights learned a great deal about chivalry from him. As a chivalrous knight, Saladin achieved a great reputation in many countries, especially in Europe. 3. Richard the Lionheart (b.1157-d.1199) He was the king of England. Often referred to as Coeur de Lion (Richard the Lionheart) due to his reputation as a great military leader and warrior, Richard I was viewed as a real hero in his day and turned out to be a legendary figure almost omnipresent throughout literary works. At an early age, Richard had shown much responsibility in commanding his own army putting down rebellions in Poitou against his father, King Henry II. He became so known for his courage and bravery. During the third Crusade, Richard was considered as a central Christian, scoring considerable victories against his Muslim counterpart, Saladin. Seen as a pious and a faithful hero by his subjects, Richard indeed remained a mysterious king noted for his chivalry. 4.Saint Thomas Aquinas (b. 1225-d.1274) Being a Catholic Priest in the Dominican Order, Saint Thomas was a very influential philosopher and theologian in the tradition of scholasticism. He was well celebrated for his proofs for the existence of God. It is obvious that Saint Aquinas was the founding father of Thomistic school of philosophy and theology. Perceived as the model teacher for those following their studies on priesthood, Saint Thomas was brought to the church fron an early age wherein he could discover natural and metaphysical works of the greatest Greek philosopher Aristotle. Throughout his life, Saint Thomas had been subject to lots of persecutions from his brothers, who tried to put him in jail. Once there, Saint Thomas was strongly determined to continue his studies. He went to Paris and encountered lots of serious problems before he got his degree. However, thanks to the interference of St. Louis IX of France, Thomas was capable of getting his degree. 5. Scholasticism It is a term that is derived from the Latin word scholasticus, meaning “that which belongs to the school.” It was used to designate both a method and a system and, what is particular of it, is that it is applied not only to theology but to philosophy as well. It is based on the authority of the Latin Fathers and of Aristotle and his commentators. Its primary concern was to come up with the answer to questions and resolve contradictions. The foremost figures of scholasticism were Albert the Great, William of Ockham, Peter Abelard and, above all, Thomas Aquinas. 6. Joan of Arc (b.1413-1431) She was also known as The Maid of Orleans. She was a national heroine of France and a Catholic saint six centuries later. As teenage, she heard voices prompting her to save France from English domination. Interestingly, one can note that this pleasant and highly important girl would soon lead the French army to many different victories during the Hundred Years’ War, professing divine guidance. She was, either directly or obliquely, so accountable for the coronation of Charles VII. She was invariably placed at the head of the army notwithstanding her being a young woman. She fiercely waged a war against the English and urged them to forsake Orleans. She was caught by the Burgundians and was sold to the English. Afterwards, she was tried by an ecclesiastical court and burned at the stake when she was nineteen years old. Along with St. Denis, St. Martin of Tours, S. Louis IX, and St. Theresa of Lisieux, she was classified among the patron saints of France. She had claimed that she received visions from God who had guided her to recover her homeland from the English domination. As such, she remained an important and a renowned figure in Western culture appearing in political and creative works of most accredited and famous writers like Shakespeare and Voltaire, to name but a few. 7. Babylonian Captivity (Avignon Papacy) It refers to that period from 1309 to 1378 during which seven Popes resided in Avignon. This period was so critical as much controversy had arisen so long as the French Kings held much control over the papacy. This would make the European rulers feel sidelined by this cruel hegemony of the new French-centric Court. The problem reached its zenith, especially when Gregory XI died while trying to return the Papal court to Rome. After Gregory’s death, a conclave met and Urban VI was chosen as a new pope. The latter would therefore alienate the French cardinals, who were so much obliged to hold a second conclave, electing a new pope, Robert of Geneva. Along with his successor, this pope is considered as an antipope by the church. Thereby, in 1417, another pope, Martin V, was elected. Other Popes would later succeed them. 8. John Wycliffe (b.1320-d.1384) He was a scholar, an English theologian, lay preacher, reformist and a university teacher at Oxford who made many contributions to both philosophy and theology. Obviously, this man was used by God to influence greatly the spiritual life of English people. Known as the Morning Star of the Reformation, John was one of the earliest opponents of papal authority influencing to a large extent secular power.. In the 1370s, he was condemned by the two popes Gregory XI and Urban VI for introducing many heresies and mistakes. Nevertheless, his popularity in England and Europe enabled him to escape arrest and persecution. This happened because John used to preaching and to writing against multiple doctrines and practices of the Church of Rome. He would even translate the Bible into English and send itinerant preachers (later called Lollards) throughout England. 9. John Huss (b.1372-d.1415) He was a Czech Catholic priest, philosopher, reformer and a scholar at Charles University in Prague. Born to a peasant family, John was ordained as a priest of the Roman Catholic Church wherein he preached on Sundays. He is known for having been burned owing to what the Roman Catholic Church considered to be heretical beliefs on ecclesiology. Hus was remarkably an activist in the Protestant movement whose teachings had a tremendous impact on people all over Europe. After his death, his disciples were known as the Moravians and later as the Hussites. 10. Humanism: The word “Humanism” has lots of meanings depending on the disciplines in which it is used. But generally, it comes to refer to this wide range of ethical stances that attaches great significance and importance to human dignity, concerns and capabilities, particularly rationality. Noteworthy is that humanism’s outstanding example was Renaissance humanism from the 14th to 16th centuries. The latter had developed from the rediscovery by European scholars of classical Latin and Greek texts. It had highlighted human dignity, potential and affected every aspect of culture in Europe as a response to the religious hegemony and authoritarianism of Medieval Catholicism. This importance to Man would soon lead to the Protestant Reformation, meanwhile fostering many changes that touched on the social and political lives of the white man. 11. Petrarch:(b.1304-d.1374) His full name is Francesco Petrarca and he was known in English as Petrarch. He was an Italian poet, scholar, a humanist and a major force in the development of the Renaissance. He was often called the “Father of Humanism”. After 1326, he abdicated the study of law and concentrated on his true interests like literature and the religious as well as spiritual life. His poems were admired and appreciated throughout Europe during the Renaissance. Most importantly, he became a model for lyrical poetry and he was also among the first scholars that had referred to the dark ages. In 1341, Petrarch would be crowned as poet laureate in Rome. Added to this is that he was charged with many diplomatic missions. He was by no means regarded as the most notable scholar of his age given his strong interest in classical culture and Christianity. His biographers claimed that Petrarch was so much inspired by a lady called Laura, yet there are others who believed that this was but a fictional character. 12. Medici’s (1434-1737) It was a political dynasty, banking family and later royal house who first began to gather prominence under Cosimo de Medici in the Republic of Florence during the late 14th century. Most renowned for their patronage of learning, literature, science and arts, the Medici’s gave birth to four Popes of the Catholic Church and, in 1531, the family became hereditary Dukes of Florence. The Medici Bank was indeed classified among the most respected institutions in Europe. Furthermore, there are some estimates which put forward that the Medici’s were the most well-to-do family in entire Europe for a given a era of time. From this perspective, it is important to mention that they had acquired political power initially in Florence and afterwards throughout Europe . 13. Michelangelo (b.1475-d.1564) His full name is Michlangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni. He was an Italian architect, painter, sculptor and poet in the period known as the High Renaissance. What is special about his works is that they were completely in the service of the Catholic Church. In addition, his works did embody a huge statue of the biblical hero David in Florence. This statue is believed to have been sculpted between 1501 and 1504. Also, the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome that was painted between 1508 and 1512 was included in his works. As an architect, Michelangelo is said to be the pioneer of the Mannerist style at the Laurentian Library. Despite his strong dedication to sculpture, Michelangelo was so active in architecture, for he designed the dome of ST. Peter’s Basilica, which could not be finished only after his death. Like his compatriots Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael, Michelangelo is regarded by all people all over the world as the master of European art. 14. Thomas More (b.1478-d.1535) Referred to as Saint Thomas More, Sir Thomas was a great English scholar, author, lawyer and a statesman. In his life, Saint Thomas got a great reputation not only as an opponent of the Reformation of Martin Luther but as a leading Renaissance humanist. During the last years of his life, he was Lord Chancellor. It is him indeed who did coin the term “utopia” that he gave to an imaginary island nation he depicted in Utopia, a masterwork that had been published in 1516. A distinguished man, Saint Thomas served as an adviser of Henry VIII of England. However, he would be beheaded in 1535 when he declined the signing of the Act of Supremacy 1534. What was important about this act was that it declared the King the Supreme Head of the Church of England. 13. Erasmus (b. 1466-d.1469) His full name is Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus and sometimes he was known as Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam. He was a Catholic theologian and a Dutch Renaissance humanist. Throughout the 16th century, he gained much fame thanks to his popular and academic writings that subsumed witty criticisms of civil rulers, the clergy and superstition of all sorts. He was an erudite prolific scholar, magnetizing the public by his widely read The Praise of Folly, (1509) that made much fun of the church and the state. His religious creeds are said to have heavily influenced Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli. He was also much dedicated and committed to reforming the church from within. What is eye-catching about his life is that he was born to unmarried parents. He cherished many ideas about Catholic doctrines such as that of free will, grace and so on. In 1492, it is said that poverty would force him into the monastery. He died in Basel in 1536. 16. Martin Luther (1483-d.1546) It is commonly assumed that Martin Luther had changed the course of human history not because he initiated the Protestant Reformation, but because he would overthrow the all-powerful Catholic Church and reshape Medieval Europe. Born into a world dominated by the Catholic Church, holding complete religious dominion over all the European nations, Luther would soon become increasingly so skeptikal that the Church could grant him salvation at all. Admittedly, Martin’s theology challenged the authority of the pope of the Roman Catholic Church by teaching that the Bible is the only source of divinely revealed knowledge. In brief, Luther was not only a revolutionary thinker but he was also a remarkable poet, whose hymns inspired the development of singing in churches. His marriage to Katharina von Bora set a model for the practice of clerical marriage, allowing Protestants to get married, too. 17. John Calvin (1509-1564) He had made a great influence on Western Christian thought and culture. Being a French pastor and theologian during the Protestant Reformation, Calvin is viewed as the major figure, who had played a leading role in the development of the system of Christian theology, later known as Calvinism. Born to a Roman Catholic family, Calvin was schooled in Latin, Hebrew, Philosophy and Law in the French capital, Paris, Orleans and Bourges. As a humanist lawyer, Calvin abandoned the Roman Catholic Church around 1530. In fact, Calvin held some assumptions about the heated doctrine of predestination, which simply means that all that happened to Man had been prescribed by God before creation. His thinking would pave the way for the emergence of a branch of theology that bears his name. 18. Puritans Indeed, the “puritans” is a term that had been given in the 16th century to the more extreme Protestants within the church of England. These Protestants had believed that the English Reformation had not gone far enough in reforming the doctrines and structure of the church. So, they tried to cleanse their national church by eradicating every shred of Catholic influence. In the 17th century, many Puritans would immigrate to the New World. In this heavenly place, they sought to found a holy Commonwealth. Almost until the 19th century, Puritanism remained the dominant cultural force in that area. The great concern of puritans was that they were advocating what is called “purity” of worship and doctrine. Initially, the term “puritan” was synonymous with “Cathar” and, later, it was realted to Luther’s term Schwärmer. In our modern time, the term “puritan” is extended to signify any very conservative Protestant or evangelicals. 19. Ignatius Loyola (b.1491-d.1556) He is seen as the founder of the society of Jesus as he was its first Superior General. Born within a Spanish family, Saint Ignatius would turn out to be both a priest and a hermit although he started his career as a soldier. It is reported that he underwent a religious conversion after his convalescence from serious wounds inflicted by a French cannonball in 1521. He pursued his theological courses in Spain and France after he intended Jerusalem for pilgrimage. Coming from a Basque noble family, Ignatius renounced the world of knights, glories and heroism and came to live a life of labor for God following good models before him like Francis Assisi. He professed that he saw Virgin Mary and baby Jesus in a vision. He managed to attract many followers and initiate them in the society of Jesus where they learned many Spiritual Exercises. 20. Henry VIII (b. 1491-d.1547) From the period of 1509 till 1547, Henry VIII ruled England. He remained among the most celebrated and controversial kings who had passed in England’s history. Most amazing about him is that he married six different women to end up having a male heir. He was lord of Ireland (later King of Ireland) as well as claimant to the Kingdom of France. Being a significant monarch in the history of English monarchy, Henry VIII was more popularly famous for his role in the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church. The king’s life was recounted by the great English playwright William Shakespeare. Henry was best known for obesity and his great girth. He was followed by his short lived son Edward VI. Later, his daughter Elisabeth I succeeded to the throne, hence, becoming one of England’s strongest and longest-reigning monarchs. 21. Marco Polo (1254-1324) Famous for his trips and travels around Asia, Marco was actually a merchant from the Venetian Republic being one of the first Europeans to travel into Mongolia and China. He learned much about trading whilst his uncle and father, Maffeo and Noccolo, travelled through Asia. Marco was imprisoned, and such a bad experience did not prevent him from dictating his stories to a cellmate. However, he was released in 1299 and turned into a rich merchant having three children. People, namely friends, would regularly gather in his house and hear his stories in the far East. Marco chronicled all his extensive travels throughout Asia. He had plainly influenced the European cartography, which soon would bring about Fra Mauro map. Marco died in 1324. 22. Spanish Inquisition of 1492 Spanish Inquisition had been so much controversial and debatable. It was an ecclesiastical tribunal that was founded in 1478 by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. It was also authorized by Pope Sixtus IV in 1478 to scrutinize the genuineness of recent converts from Judaism to Christianity. Numerous reasons had been introduced for the monarchs to found the inquisition. Thus, the majority of activities were dedicated to the suppression of the Jews, and this was primarily a political tribunal. As an ecclesiastical tribunal, the Inquisition had jurisdiction merely over baptized Christians. 23. Vasco da Gama (b.around 1460 or 1469-d. 1524) He was a Portuguese explorer and navigator, who had led an expedition at the end of the 15th century, opening the sea route to India. He was among the most successful explorers during the age of Discovery. As the commander of the first ships, Vasco took charge of the office of Governor of Portuguese India for a short period of time in 1524 under the title Viceroy. He was a gentleman at court when he was chosen to lead the expedition to India. In the 1460s, he was a knight in the household of the Duke of Viseu, Dom Fernando. Da Gama had settled in Portugal wherein he married and raised his own family. People claimed that he had served as a counselor of the Portuguese crown and was made a court in 1519. He was not only a brave leader but a brilliant explorer as well. 24. Ferdinand Magellan (b.1480-d.1521) He was a Portuguese explorer, who led the first European voyage of discovery to circumnavigate the globe. Born in Oporto of noble parentage, Ferdinand got the Spanish nationality so as to serve the Spanish crown. This allowed him to become more broad-minded, educated as he would learn about the various Portuguese exploration expeditions, maybe even those expeditions that were led by Christopher Columbus himself. Although he did not complete his voyage around the earth, he still remained one of the first explorers to cross all of the meridians of the globe. Magellan had lost the title of viceroy as he was accused of illegally trading with the Moors. Once the accusations were proven true, Magellan lost all offers of employment from the Portuguese after 1514. 25. Hernando Cortes (b.1485-d.1547) He was the conqueror of Mexico and was referred to as the Spanish conquistador, who did in fact lead an expedition that brought about the decline of the Aztec Empire, meanwhile bringing many regions of Mexico under the King of Castile sway. Following his birth in 1485 into a Medellin family of minor nobility in southwestern Spain, Cortes had the chance to study law before setting off to the New World at the age of nineteen to seek his fortune. He joined the military expedition of Diego de Velazquez that subdued Cuba. After the victory, Cortes turned out to be the mayor of Santiago and got married to the sister-in-law of Velazquez. He was very quick in detecting and dissecting devices and strategems, even in time of apparent peace. 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