In What Ways Did the Great Migration from the South Change Race Relations in America - Term Paper Example

Topic: In what ways did the great migration from the south change race relations in America? Pages 8 Number of words: Around 2450 Referencing style: Harvard English: UK References: Total 19 Books: 17 Web Sources: 2 Topics covered: Intro The Great Migration The Backdrop of the Great Migration Racial relations during migration Migration and the change in the Racial Relations Migration and Mistrust Conclusion In what ways did the great migration change race relations? 1 Intro In the backdrop of the World War 1, the northern cities of the USA faced severe shortage of labour force. African Americans, better known as blacks who suffered more racism in the southern parts of the USA, migrated to the northern and western cities and found employment in industries and elsewhere. The great migration of blacks, continued since 1910s till the 1970s, brought them difficulties in shape of racial discrimination. But, more interaction with the whites improved racial amity also in course of time. Several court judgements also helped the American society restore racial harmony even as the blacks struggled for their rights. Through struggle and patience, blacks gradually mixed with whites in the national mainstream. That Barak Obama, an African American is the President of the US stands as a testimony to the racial amity of the blacks and whites of the country. The Great Migration: The continuous and mass exodus of black people which took place from the southern parts of the USA to the northern cities of the country in search of livelihood between 1910 and 1970 is referred to as the great migration by historians. This took place in two phases with the first one taking place between 1910 and 1940 and the second one happening between 1940 and 1970. By the end of the 1920s, more than 1 million blacks from the south migrated to the cities in the North as factory workers (Kook, 2002: 141). With this, the African American population went up by 66 % , 148 %, 59% and 611 % in New York, Chicago, Philadelphia and Detroit Cities respectively between 1910 and 1920 (Gomez, 2005: 207 - 208). By 1940, some 1.6 million blacks migrated to the northern parts of USA and settled themselves in various jobs (Absolute Astronomy, n.d.). The migration of these blacks is called the Great Migration. In what ways did the great migration change race relations? 2 In search of better and higher living standards, around 5 million blacks from the southern cities of US migrated to its northern and western towns and cities in the second phase between 1940 and 1970. This migration was referred to as the Second Great Migration (Katz, Katz/stern and Stern, 2008: 187). Backdrop of the Great Migration: The great migration took place in the backdrop of the absence of employment opportunities, lack of minimum basic civic facilities and the presence of underdeveloped educational system, along with high levels of racism in the south (Gomez, 2005: 207 - 208). This was amply supported by the US joining the World War 1 in 1917. Due to the War, immigration from the Europe into the US dropped considerably resulting in the reduced arrival of labour force. Added to this, the recruitment of white males into the army grew many a time aggravating the already shortage of the workers in the factories (Kook, 2002: 141). These two reasons forced the migration of black people from the south to the northern areas in the first phase. The inspiration for the second great migration of blacks into the northern and western cities must have come from the abundant success of blacks who migrated in the first phase and found employment opportunities. But it is also true that the World War II also created a sea of employment opportunities in the western and northern parts of the US turning several cities into potential industrial and commercial centres. The abundance of opportunities brought about by the World War II, supported by an irrevocable success of the black immigrants in the first phase in finding employment contributed to the second great migration of blacks (Martin, 2005: 12). In what ways did the great migration change race relations? 3 Racial relations during migration The US followed state sponsored racial segregation throughout its territory for decades even before the great migration started in 1910. The state sponsored segregation, through which the blacks were made to travel in separate transportation systems, eat in separate hotels, stay in separate colonies, attend separate entertainment places and study in separate schools under the guise of ‘separate but equal’ facilities policy , was declared legal and constitutional in a judgement by the US Supreme Court in 1886 ( Law Buzz). This state sponsored policy of racial discrimination continued till 1954 when again a judgement by the country’s highest court declared it unconstitutional (Rochon, 2000: 63). This means that full racial discrimination existed at all levels in the US during the great migration and also during most part of the second great migration as well. But it is also true that racism and the discrimination against blacks was more rampant in the southern cites of the USA than its northern cities (Gomez, 2005: 166). Migration and the change in the Racial Relations One can broadly classify the American race relations into three types; mono racial, bi racial and multi racial. (Pulera, 2003: 7). While mono racial people are those born to parents of the same race, bi racial people are those born to father and mother of two different races. Multi racial people are those whose descendants belong to more than two different races. While this certainly is the result of co existence of blacks, whites and others for decades and a gradual growing of understanding of minds between whites and blacks, the second great migration of blacks into the northern and western cities of America had undoubtedly strained the racial relations in several ways for a long time after the migration, though it had also brought racial amity on several scores in the long run. (Meyer, 2001: 79-80). In fact, the migration of blacks has totally transformed In what ways did the great migration change race relations? 4 the face of racial relations in the American cities and towns. But, it must not be forgotten that the transformation did not take place overnight. Rather, it was a slow process that took decades for attaining the present shape of racial amity. The strain in racial relations appears multidimensional. The strain appeared in racial relations among school and college students, youngsters, adults and of course in social life including the marriages. But the arrival of more migrants into the northern cities brought more interaction between whites and blacks on several occasions in several cities in general and in black neighbourhoods in particular resulting in frequent tension and street brawls between them. Historians point out that the interaction was more at night clubs and brothel houses. Frequent visits of working blacks and whites to the brothel houses and night clubs have contributed to the racial tensions and racial amity as well (Sides, 2006: 47). It is true that tensions in some cities resulted in racial riots too (Rucker and Upton, 2007: 371). Migration and Mistrust The upsurge of blacks in some cities led the whites to think that blacks would indulge in violent crimes and resort to all types of illicit activity. At one stage, the upsurge of black immigrants was so huge in California State that the local whites complained of blacks running and ruining the state. In most cases of tension and street brawls involving whites and blacks, the blacks were shown as the root cause by the investigating officials (Sides, 2006: 47- 48). As the second great black immigration continued, a racialist ideology strengthened in the Northern and Western cities of US that continuation of separation of races was a must for the fullest development of the people of each race (Rochon, 2000: 63). In what ways did the great migration change race relations? 5 Added to this, the racial tensions were sometimes provoked by the Government agencies also. The stubbornness of the Federal Housing Administration in refusing to insure mortgages of houses owned by blacks trying to move into white dominated areas serves as an example on how the racial relations deteriorated after the great migration (Meyer, 2001: 80). While almost all cities tried to perpetuate racial discrimination, one finds an exception in Los Angeles Mayor Fletcher Bowron who turned innovative during his tenure between 1938 -1953 and implemented several policies that benefited and satisfied the blacks in several ways (Sides, 2006: 52). One has to understand therefore that racial segregation continued and became very intense during the second great migration but it should not forgotten that certain forces also tried to reduce tensions and bring some kind of amity between blacks and whites. While the segregation policies of the Government continued to increase racial tensions, blacks also tried to assert themselves with small time black political leaders maintaining their domination and clout in local governments. The Democratic Party also found it convenient to come to power in several northern states by courting the black vote banks on several public issues and taking up their cause (Meyer, 2001: 79). The racial segregation was so severe that in some cities like Los Angeles, Atlanta, New York, Detroit and Chicago, blacks were forced to assert their rights in favour of black Mayors several times in the 1950s and 1960s (Loury, Modood and Teles, 2005: 10). Issues of racial relations and civil rights continued to dominate the public debates those days. Historians reveal that in several surveys in the 1960s both whites and blacks listed racial relations on top of the problems plaguing the American society. But the most positive In what ways did the great migration change race relations? 6 development is that contrary to earlier opinions, majority of the whites endorsed the integration of the Public Schools so that the Blacks also would join the national mainstream in educational field (Higham, 1999: 14). That whites gradually changed their opinions towards blacks was really a welcome development. The initial strain and tension in the racial relations gradually paved the way for a better understanding between whites and blacks and racial harmony reflected in several areas of the society. One has to agree that the real racial amity began finding its place in the American society during the 1960s through a series of high profile black appointments and court judgements (Upchurch, 2008: 85). African American lawyer Thurgood Marshall was appointed as a federal judge in 1961 by President Kennedy. Prior to that in 1960, a court judgement allowed integration of transport systems to carry black passengers along with whites. Another court judgement barred private restaurants serving food to its customers on the basis of racial discrimination. Soon, judgements for the integration of eateries and lodgings followed. Public parks were asked not to bar admission to people on racial grounds. In 1967, US Supreme Court reversed a California State Law that permitted real estate companies to sell plots on racial grounds. In 1968, courts removed racial discrimination on housing schemes and in 1969, the courts effectively barred private clubs from practicing racial discrimination in the allotment of club memberships (Upchurch, 2008 : 85). The integration of schools certainly helped improve the racial relations among students but that certain kind of racial divide, though very negligible compared to the past, existed between whites and blacks in the student community even after a decade of school integration In what ways did the great migration change race relations? 7 was proved when the black students at the University of Mississippi formed a Black Students Union in 1970 and organised protests demanding equality with white students ((Boren, 2001: 267). But the most significant judgement that changed the racial relations forever for the better among the students was the one given by the US Supreme Court in 1954. In that particular judgement, the highest court ruled in favour of integrating the schools as segregation of students of similar age groups on the basis of their race instils inferiority complex in students and also weaken their hearts and minds that cannot be reversed later (Rochon, 2000: 63). Race Relations and marriages: Along with education, marriage is also part of normal social life in all societies and the American society is no exception for this. The great migration, especially the second great migration, has no doubt brought about immense black population to the cities of the North and the West but it has brought little change in the racial relations in terms of marriages between whites and blacks. A strong notion that whites must marry people of its own race and not those of other races in general and those of black race in particular was made to grow among children by the elders (Waters, 1990: 103). Added to this, legal ban on interracial marriages was in force. But the first state to lift the ban officially on interracial marriages was Utah which passed an Act in 1963 abolishing the ban (Jameson and Armitage, 1997: 74). Most of the remaining states in the country continued with a legal ban on the interracial marriages till 1967 when a Supreme Court judgement made null and void all the state laws banning inter racial marriages (Azoulay, 1997: 95). In what ways did the great migration change race relations? 8 After the 1967 Supreme Court judgement, most of the official barriers on white – black marriages in the American society were removed but still, among all types of inter-racial marriages, the incidence of black and white marriages was very low. This is clear from the findings of researchers who revealed that 99 per cent of American - born black women had black males only as their first marriage mates (Waters, 1990: 103). Despite lifting of official barriers, the racial discrimination unofficially continued to dominate the marriage system in the American society. The statistics of marriages between 1960 and 1990 also report a very marginal increase in the black and white marriages. While the number of marriages between blacks and whites was only 1.5 out of every 1000 interracial marriages in 1960, the figure rose to 4 out of every 1000 interracial marriages in 1990, registering a nominal increase in a period of 30 years. Again, 70% of these black and white marriages took place between black men and white women (Azoulay, 1997: 95). These figures provide a clear indication that the American white attitude has not changed much towards the blacks and also that most of the American white males are not willing to marry the black women. Conclusion Much water has flowed under the bridge of racial relations in the USA and things changed for the better since the great immigration. Now, the racial amity in the country is such that blacks are found in almost all segments of the American life including the all powerful segment of politics. That an African American in Barak Obama has found his way to the White House stands as shining example of racial amity that existed now in the USA despite the initial strain in the beginnings of great immigration. In what ways did the great migration change race relations? 9 List of references: Azoulay, K.G. (1997). Black, Jewish, and interracial: its not the colour of your skin, but the race of your kin : and other myths of identity. Durham : Duke University Press Boren, M.E. ( 2001) Student resistance: a history of the unruly subject. London : Routledge Gomez, M.A. (2005) Black crescent: the experience and legacy of African Muslims in the Americas. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press Gomez, M.A. ( 2005 ) Reversing sail: a history of the African Diaspora. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press Higham, J.( 1999). Civil Rights and Social Wrongs: Black-White Relations Since World War II. PA ( USA) : Penn State Press Jameson, E. and Armitage, S.H (1997) Writing the range: race, class, and culture in the womens West. Oklahoma : University of Oklahoma Press. Katz, M.B., Katz/stern, and Stern, M.J. (2008) One Nation Divisible: What America Was and What It Is Becoming. Manhattan ( USA) : Russell Sage Foundation Kook, R.B. (2002) The logic of democratic exclusion: African Americans in the United States and Palestinian citizens in Israel. Lanham : Lexington Books Loury, G.C, Modood, T. and Teles, S.M.( 2005) Ethnicity, social mobility and public policy: comparing the USA and UK. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. Martin, W.E. (2005) No coward soldiers: Black cultural politics and postwar America. : Harvard University Press. In what ways did the great migration change race relations? 10 Meyer, S.G.( 2001) As Long As They Dont Move Next Door: Segregation and Racial Conflict in American Neighbourhoods. Lanham : Rowman & Littlefield. Pulera, D .J, (2003) Visible Differences: Why Race Will Matter to Americans in the Twenty-First Century. UK and USA :Continuum International. Rochon, T.R. (2000). Culture Moves: Ideas, Activism, and Changing Values. : Princeton University Press Rucker,W.C and Upton, J.N (2007) Encyclopedia of American race riots. CA ( USA) : Greenwood Publishing Group Sides, J. (2006) L.A. City Limits: African American Los Angeles from the Great Depression to the Present. Berkely ( US ) : University of California Press. Upchurch, T.A. ( 2008) Race Relations in the United States, 1960-1980. CA ( USA) : Greenwood Publishing Group Waters, M.C. ( 1990 ) Ethnic options: choosing identities in America. Berkeley ( US : University of California Press. WWW Sources: Absolute Astronomy. Great Migration-African American, [Online], Available: http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Great_Migration_(African_American) [9 April 2009]. Law Buzz. “Separate but equal” Plessy V. Ferguson 1896. [Online], Available: http://www.lawbuzz.com/can_you/plessy/plessy.htm [11 April 2009]. Read More