The Civil Rights Movement - Literature review Example

The African American Revolution The Civil Rights Movement and the march on Washington Order No: 174969 No: of pages: 8 Premium – 6530 Introduction: Several historians trace the foundations of the Modern world, to the different revolutions that occurred during the late 1700’s. The first of them was “The American Revolution” where 13 British colonies in North America declared their independence after breaking away from the mother country. This essay analyses the bravery of this group who resisted the pressure from the British Military for seven long years (1775 – 1783) and successfully overcame the problems they had faced. The reasons or the causes that led to such a massive revolution are of great historical significance for the fact that it had a huge impact on parties involved in it. According to me, this topic is not only appealing but quite interesting to analyze and this is the reason for me choosing this topic for my dissertation. This topic is so vast and covers many important and relevant details that not only led to the revolution but also the impact it had on the society at large. I would be covering the main events of the revolution and the outcomes that took shape in my essay. The Causes that led to the Revolution: 1775 saw the first military conflicts between the British and the American troops at Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts when the British troops attempted to capture a storehouse full of American weapons. It was during this time that the Second Continental Congress was in progress and George Washington was appointed as Commander of the American troops fighting in Boston, which the British held under siege. Before Washington could arrive, American and British troops clashed at Breed’s Hill and Bunker Hill. In 1776, a writer named Thomas Paine came from Britain and published a pamphlet titled “Common Sense” in which he urged the American colonies to discard the British rule. As Miller stated, the American Revolution “occurred in the empire distinguished above all others in the eighteenth century by the large measure of political, religious, and economic freedom it allowed its colonies overseas" (Miller, xiii). Arguably, the Americans had already experienced freedom in different forms but the main reason for the Revolution was that they wanted more than they already had. "Like all revolutions, the American one started with small, relatively unimportant demands that grew, during and after the conflict, far beyond the vision of the original participants" (Lipset, 22). Stephen Thernstrom, Professor of History at Harvard University, gives us a vivid picture of how the Blacks were denied the right to vote in his book “Whose Votes Count” Stephen Thernstrom, Harvard University Press, 1987) which was based on “unfair application of literacy tests” and a “sinister combination of racial discrimination” (Stephan Thernstrom, Harvard University Press, 1987) Abigail Thernstrom was the co- author with her husband Stephen Thernstrom in a book called “America in White and Black: One Nation Indivisible (Simon and Shuster, 1997) which was described as “one of the notable books of 1997” by the New York Times. This book is a far – reaching survey of race relations for the last 50 years in America. “{America in Black and White} promises to become the standard reference book on contemporary race relations” (Linda Chavez, The Chicago Tribune) On the issue of employment, the evaluation and evidence gathered from the Urban Institute Studies carried out by James Heckman and Peter Siegelman (1993) demonstrate that the “difficulties in trying to test for discrimination are far greater than one might expect”. (James Heckman and Peter Siegelmen, 1993) The March on Washington: Events in Birmingham stirred up a volley of demonstrations everywhere which took place in the spring and summer of 1963. On June 19th, President Kennedy sent Congress the Civil rights Bill that he had promised offering federal protection to African Americans to eat out, shop, to vote and be educated on equal terms as the others. In his book “Struggle and Resistance”, (Martin Riches, Macmillan, 1997) gives a very coherent, accurate and chronological explanation of the Kennedy initiatives of the 1960’s followed by Women’s Rights and equal rights to Homosexuals. The congress was pressured into adopting the bill and the huge upsurge in protest brought together major civil rights, religious and labor groups to organize a massive demonstration in Washington. The deep seated roots of the 1963 march on Washington, dates back to the initiative taken by A. Phillip Randolph (President of the Brotherhood of the Sleeping car Porters, 1941) in 1941 who had organized the original march on Washington to urge President Roosevelt to guarantee black men and women in the wartime armament industries with jobs. At the last moment, the 1941 war was cancelled as Roosevelt agreed to their demands thereby protecting the rights of African- Americans since the Emancipation Proclamation. Again by the end of 1962, Randolph held talks with Bayard Rustin about staging a huge demonstration in Washington. After two days of rallying and lobbying they decided “to embody in one gesture civil rights as well as national economic demands." (The March on Washington, 1963, Jobs and Freedom) This march is described as the largest political demonstration in U.S. history to that date and still one of the most vividly remembered (Fairclough, 1997, 409). On 11th of June, when Kennedy made his great historic civil rights speech, King too announced to the press his plans for a march on Washington. On July 2, the “Big Six” which included civil rights leaders: Randolph, Roy Wilkins (NAACP), James Farmer (CORE), John Lewis (SNCC), Whitney Young, Jr. (Urban League), and King (SCLC) met at New York’s Roosevelt Hotel for a high level meeting and after heavy discussions scheduled the march for August 28th. Bayard Rustin was chosen as the chief coordinator and he worked hard trying to assemble the logistics together of getting 100,000 demonstrators from both in and out of town. Funds for the march poured in by way of big as well as small donations. Official march buttons and mementos were sold to bring in some money. A massive fund – raising show was put up at Harlem’s Apollo Theatre, where stars such as the likes of Quincy Jones, William “Cozy” Cole and others donated performances. Kennedy too embraced the march. The organizers of the march and the Washington authorities strived hard for a peaceful march. On the other hand, the FBI director J. Edgar Hoover repeatedly tried to cause confusion before the march by trying to defame Martin Luther King Jr. The trip to the march was a grand festive affair for the marchers who enlivened the atmosphere by singing freedom songs and the excitement of being a part of great historic action. Marchers from different countries came in thousands to support the event which was unquestionably the largest political demonstration in America till date. The signs and slogans used by the demonstrators were unique with phrases such as “UAW Says Jobs and Freedom For Every American”, “Stop Legal Murders” and “Not Negroes, but Afro- Americans” and scores of other political outbursts. The Day That Created History: Thousands of demonstrators gathered at the Washington Monument where a grand stage had been set. Famous singer Joan Baez, opened the ceremony by singing the song “Oh Freedom” followed by a beautiful rendition of “We shall overcome” joined in by all the demonstrators. Press coverage was more extensive than for any other demonstration previously recorded in the history of the United States. Speeches by the Leaders/ Martin Luther King: The atmosphere at the Lincoln Memorial is filled with expectant excitement as Sir Martin Luther King is invited onto the podium with claps and shouts that rent the air. He was announced as the “model leader of our nation” before he stepped onto the stage. Martin Luther King Jr. began his speech thus, “I am happy to join with you today, in what will go down in history as the greatest demonstration for freedom in the history of our nation” (Martin Luther King Jr. “I have a Dream”, at the Washington memorial Rally). King went on to enumerate the suffering of the Negroes who worked hard but lived in abject poverty. He spoke of the Emancipation Proclamation and said that even after independence was given, the Negroes “still lived on a lonely island of poverty, in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity” (King, Washington Memorial). He went on to state that even one hundred years later, the Negroes are still not free and feel captive in their own land bound by the shackles of segregation and discrimination. He said that this march is a beacon of light towards equal rights, “liberty and the pursuit of happiness” (Martin Luther King Jr. at the Washington Memorial) According to him America had defaulted on the Promissory Note, so far as colored citizens are concerned. He vehemently stated that America had given them a bad cheque and they refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt, so they have come together today to encash the cheque that would give them true freedom. Martin Luther King Junior’s “I have a dream” speech was filled with patriotism and love for his suffering brethren. His speech has great significance in the history of America because it laid the foundation of the dream Martin Luther king had for America. Speech of John Lewis: However, the speech of John Lewis who was one of the representatives of the SNCC, sent a different message altogether to the people. He was angry and this anger was reflected in his speech. Lewis felt that the Federal government was not doing anything much while people seemed to be celebrating at the march. Many of the leaders did not approve of the heated speech and asked him to tone it down, but even so the speech did not give much credit to the Kennedy Government who was the main sponsor of the event. Lewis went on to state in an angry manner, “I want to know, whose side is the federal Government on? The revolution is a serious one. Mr. Kennedy is trying to take the revolution out of the streets and put it in the courts. Listen Mr. Kennedy, the Black masses are on the march for jobs and for freedom, and we must say to the politicians that there won’t be a “cooling off period” (John Lewis, at the Washington Memorial March) Speech of A. Phillip Randolph: He was the founder of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and was the person responsible for calling for a march in 1941, to draw attention to the black communities who were deprived of many economic opportunities. When Roosevelt rose to the occasion and issued an executive order desegregating the defense industries, Randolph called off the march in the last moment. Martin Luther King Jr. called him “the conscience of the labor movement”. His rich baritone voice was heard by one and all on television news programs addressing the nation on behalf of all the African – Americans who were engaged in their struggle for freedom from racial discrimination and equal right to education and employment. He also addressed the sensitive topic of equal right to voting irrespective of color, caste, creed or nationality. Outcome of the March at Washington Memorial: The march was a grand success, better than what was expected. The marchers dispersed peacefully and in an orderly fashion. There were around 5000 police personnel, Navy reservists and guardsmen. No untoward incident had taken place except for a few arrests. The highlight of this historic affair was the march and the inspiring speech of Martin Luther King Jr. which gave good impetus to the Civil rights Movement. After the march, the leaders had a meeting with Kennedy at the White House to discuss about setting right the laws of discrimination so that every citizen of America enjoys equal rights. Impact of the Civil Rights Movement on Domestic Policy: Public opinion cannot be ignored and whether directly or indirectly it definitely has an impact on domestic policy. It plays a major role especially during election time when voters go with the sway of the general opinion of the public. It led to changes in different areas such as employment, education, housing, and equal rights of all individuals irrespective of caste, color, creed or any other differences. The Civil Rights Act set both blacks and whites on an equal platform granting equality in every sphere. Effects of Freedom: The first and foremost effect of freedom was the right to vote that was granted irrespective of color, caste or creed. In addition to this no literacy tests would be conducted to qualify for voting. Immediate action would be taken against people showing signs of discrimination. The Act provided relief from discrimination in public accommodations, public facilities and public education. It entitled all persons to full and equal enjoyment of goods and services, facilities and privileges, and advantages without any segregation or discrimination on the grounds of race, color, religion or National origin. It also prevented discrimination in federally assisted programs and established a Commission on equal employment opportunity for every individual. If a complaint is lodged by an individual who feels that he is deprived or threatened where his rights are concerned, necessary action would be taken against them. Thus I readily agree that The Civil Rights Movement and the March to Washington were key factors in helping to restore the dignity and freedom of thousands of suffering Negroes and such an act undertaken by thousands of people who supported it against all odds and stood together till the last are enjoying the enormous benefits that are not the rights of some but of every human being. References: Fairclough, A. (1997). Civil Rights and the Lincoln memorial: the censored speeches of Robert R. Moton (1992) and John Lewis (1963). Journal of Negro history, 82(4), 408-416. Thernstrom, A. (1987). Who’s Votes Count: Affirmative Action and Minority Voting Rights. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Excerpt: The March in Washington, 1963/ the Civil Rights Movement. www.abbeville.com/civilrights/washington.asp Thernstrom, S., and Thernstrom, A. (1997). America in Black and White: One Nation Invisible. New York: Simon and Schuster. American Rhetoric: Martin Luther King Jr. I have a dream www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/Ihaveadream.htm Veterans of the Civil Rights Movement/ The March on Washington www.crmvet.org/info/mowrolin.htm Riches. and Martin, T. W. (1997). The Civil Rights Movement: Struggle and Resistance. New York: St. Martin Press. Martin Luther King www.stanford.edu/group/King/publications/speeches/address_at_march_on_washington Heckman, J. J., and Payner, B. S. (1989). Determining the Impact of Federal Antidiscrimination Policy on the Economic Status of Blacks: A Study of South Carolina. American Economic Review, 79(1). The SNCC – Events: March on Washington www.ibiblio.org/sncc/march.html American Experience www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eyesontheprize/story/08_washington.html King Encyclopedia www.stanford.edu/group/King/about_king/encyclopedia/march_washington.html Civil Rights Act of 1964 www.usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/laws/majorlaw/civilr19.htm Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 www.eeoc.gov/policy/vii.html Read More