History of Art Architecture and Design - Essay Example

Modernisation, Modernity, and Modernism The terms modernisation, modernity, and modernism, although often used alternately, have distinctmeaning from each other. Modernisation is the process of altering the circumstances of a society, an organisation or another group of people in ways that change the privileges of that group according to contemporary technology or contemporary wisdom1 whilst modernity is a word used to illustrate the condition of being ‘Modern.’ Since the term ‘Modern’ is used to illustrate a broad range of periods, the term modernity should always be taken in context.2 And lastly, the term modernism is an artistic and cultural movement that normally includes progressive art and architecture, music and literature emerging in the decades before 1914, as artists rebelled against late 19th century academic and historicist traditions.3 Modernisation The concept of modernisation comes from a view of societies as having a standard evolutionary pattern, as described in the social evolutionism theories. Society would progress inevitably from barbarism to ever superior levels of development and civilization. The more modern states would be wealthier, the more freedom and higher standard of living their citizens will have. This was the standard view in the social sciences for many decades with its foremost advocate being Talcott Parsons. This theory stressed the importance of societies being open to change and saw as reactionary forces restricting development. Maintaining tradition for traditions sake was thought to be harmful to progress and development. However, this approach has been heavily criticized, mainly because it conflated modernisation with westernisation. In this model, the modernization of a society required the destruction of the indigenous culture and its replacement by a more westernised one.4 Modernity Modernity denoted the idea that the present is discontinuous with the past, that through a process of social and cultural change, life in the present is basically distinct from the past life. This sense or idea as a world view contrasts with tradition, which is simply the sense that the present is continuous with the past, that the present in some way repeats the forms, behaviour, and events of the past.5 Modernity could include all of post-medieval European history, in the context of dividing history into three large epochs: Antiquity or Ancient history, the Middle Ages, and Modern. It is also applied specifically to the period beginning somewhere between 1870 and 1910, through the present, and even more specifically to the 1910-1960 period.6 Modernity is often characterized by contrasting modern societies to premodern or postmodern ones. To an extent, it is reasonable to doubt the very possibility of a descriptive concept that can adequately capture diverse realities of societies of various historical contexts, especially non-European ones, let alone a three-stage model of social evolution from premodernity to postmodernity.7 The Paradox of Modernity The ‘crisis of modernity’ is the sense that modernity is a problem, that traditional ways of life have been replaced with uncontainable change and insurmountable alternatives. The crisis itself is merely the sense that the present is a transitional point not focused on a clear goal in the future but simply changing through forces outside man’s control.8 Modernization brought a series of seemingly undisputable benefits to people. Lower infant mortality rate, decreased death from starvation, eradication of some of the fatal diseases, more equal treatment of people with different backgrounds and incomes, and so on. To some, this is an indication of the potential of modernity, perhaps yet to be fully realised. In general, rational, scientific approach to problems and the pursuit of economic wealth seems still to many a reasonable way of understanding good social development.9 At the same time, there are a number of dark sides of modernity mentioned by sociologists. Technological development occurred not only in the medical and agricultural fields, but also in the military. The atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II, and the following nuclear arms race in the post-war era, are considered by some as symbols of the danger of technologies that humans may or may not be able to handle wisely.10 Environmental problems also add to the dark side of modernity. Pollution is perhaps the least controversial of these, but one may include decreasing biodiversity and climate change as results of development. The development of biotechnology and genetic engineering are creating what some consider sources of unidentified risks. Besides these obvious incidents, many critics point out psychological and moral hazards of modern life - alienation, feeling of rootlessness, loss of strong bonds and common values, hedonism, and so on. This is often accompanied by a re-evaluation of pre-modern communities, though such criticism may slip into a nostalgia for an idealised past.11 Modernism The history of modern art started with Impressionism. It all began in Paris as a reaction to a very formal and rigid style of painting - done inside studios and set by traditional institutions like the Academie des Beaux-Arts in Paris. The exhibition of Edouard Manets famous painting, Dejeuner sur lherbe, in 1863 in the Salon des Refuses (organized by those painter who were rejected by the Academie des Beaux-Arts), caused a scandal. It can be considered as the beginning of Impressionism.12 Some divide the 20th century into modern and postmodern periods, whereas others see them as two parts of the same larger period.13 Precursors to modernism The first half of the 19th century for Europe was marked by a series of chaotic wars and revolutions, which gradually formed into a series of ideas and doctrines now identified as Romanticism, which focused on individual subjective experience, the supremacy of ‘Nature’ as the standard subject for art, revolutionary or radical extensions of expression, and individual liberty. By mid-century, however, a synthesis of these ideas, and stable governing forms had emerged. Called by various names, this synthesis was rooted in the idea that what was ‘real’ dominated over what was subjective. Beginning in the 1890s and with increasing force afterwards, a strand of thinking began to emphasise the necessity to push aside earlier norms entirely, and instead of merely revising past knowledge in light of current techniques, it would be necessary to make more thorough changes.14 By 1930, modernism had won a place in the establishment, including the political and artistic establishment. Paradoxically, by the time it was being accepted, Modernism itself had changed. There was a general reaction in the 1920s against the pre-1918 Modernism, which emphasised its continuity with a past even as it rebelled against it, and against the aspects of that period, which seemed excessively mannered, irrational, and emotionalistic.15 Modernism in architecture Modern architecture is a broad term given to a number of building styles with similar characteristics; primarily the simplification of form and the elimination of ornament that first arose around 1900. By the 1940s these styles had been consolidated and recognized as the International Style and became the main architectural style for several decades in the twentieth century. The exact characteristics and origins of modern architecture are still open to interpretation and debate, however, it is generally recognised that modernism was superseded by postmodernism and is now regarded as a historical style.16 Modern architecture make use of modern materials, the principles of functionalist planning, and the rejection of historical precedent and ornament.17 Since the mid-19th cent. there had been repeated attempts to assimilate modern technology in practice and theory and to formulate a modern style of architecture suitable to its age. A functionalist approach eventually replaced the formerly eclectic approach to design. Technical progress in the use of iron and glass made possible the construction of Sir Joseph Paxtons celebrated Crystal Palace in London (1851), in which a remarkable delicacy was achieved. In the following years, iron, steel, and glass enabled architects and engineers to enclose the vast interior spaces of train sheds, department stores, and market halls, but often the structural forms were clothed with irrelevant ornament.18 As a result of the advances in construction technology, the formal conception of architecture was also undergoing an insightful transformation. Frank Lloyd Wright, a pupil of Sullivan, experimented with the interpenetration of interior and exterior spaces in his residential designs. In Holland, where Wrights work was widely admired, the architects of de Stijl sought to organize building elements into new combinations of overlapping and hovering rectangular planes.19 Modern architecture is usually characterised by; a rejection of historical styles as a source of architectural form; adoption of the principle that the materials and functional requirements determine the result; adoption of the machine aesthetic; rejection of ornament; simplification of form and elimination of unnecessary detail; adoption of expressed structure.20 Modernism in art Modern art is a general term, used for most of the artistic production from the late 19th century until approximately the 1970s. Modern art refers to the then new approach to art where it was no longer important to represent a subject realistically — the invention of photography had made this function of art out of date. Instead, artists started experimenting with new ways of seeing, with new ideas about the nature, materials and functions of art, often moving further toward abstraction. The notion of modern art is closely related to Modernism.21 Modern art began as a Western movement, particularly in painting and printmaking, and then escalating to other visual arts, including sculpture and architecture in the mid-19th century. By the late 19th century, various movements in modern art had begun to appear: Impressionism, centered around Paris, and Expressionism, which first emerged in Germany. The influences were diverse: from exposure to Eastern decorative arts, particularly Japanese printmaking, to the colouristic innovations of Turner and Delacroix, to a search for more depiction of common life, as found in the work of painters such as Millet.22 The Impressionist painters preferred to paint outside and studied the effect of light on objects. Their preferred subjects were landscapes and scenes from daily life. The best known names in Impressionist painting are Edouard Manet, Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, Camille Pissarro and Pierre Auguste Renoir in France and Alfred Sisley in England.23 Form follows function Form follows function is one of the principle associated with Modern architecture and industrial design in the 20th Century. In the context of design professions ‘form follows function’ seems like solid good sense. On closer examination it becomes problematic, controversial, and open to interpretation. Linking the relationship between the form of an object and its intended purpose is obviously a good idea for designers and architects, but is not by itself a design solution. Zeroing in on the precise meaning of ‘form follows function opens a discussion of design integrity that remains an important, live debate.24 In the late 1910’s the two principles of ‘form follows function’ and ‘ornament is a crime’ were efficiently adopted by the designers of the Bauhaus and used to the design of everyday objects like chairs, bedframes, toothbrushes, tunics, and teapots. Some of those forms were refined and purified to such an extreme degree that they became unusable by humans, but generally the Bauhaus still constructively influences the look, feel and function of consumer goods until today.25 Modernism in architecture began as a closely controlled effort to return to first principles, and allow the shape and logic of the building to be determined only by functional requirements, not by a traditional style or a random aesthetic choice. It presupposes that somebody has done his or her homework and developed those functional requirements. The resulting structures tended to be simpler, flatter, and lighter than their older neighbors; their functionality and refreshing nakedness looked as honest and inevitable as an airplane. A recognizable Modern vocabulary began to develop.26 Bibliography Form follows function. (2005). Retrieved 25 Dec. 2005, from http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Form_follows_function. Hooker, Richard. (July 14,1999). Crisis in modernity. Retrieved 25 Dec. 2005, from http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GLOSSARY/MODERN.HTM Modernity. (12 December 2005). Retrieved 25 Dec. 2005, from http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Modernity. Modernization. (14 December 2005). Retrieved 25 Dec. 2005, from http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Modernization. Modernism. (14 December 2005). Retrieved 25 Dec. 2005, from http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Modernism. Modern art. (17 December 2005). Retrieved 25 Dec. 2005, from http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Modern_art Modern art movements. (2005). Retrieved 25 Dec. 2005, from http://www.artelino.com/ articles/modern_art_periods.asp Modern architecture. (21 Dec. 2005). Retrieved 25 Dec. 2005, from http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Modern_architecture. Modern architecture. (2005). Retrieved 25 Dec. 2005, from http://www.infoplease.com/ ce6/world/A0833538.html Read More