Russia in the 20th Century - Essay Example

Russia in the 20th Century In the 20th Century, Russia went through drastic changes.  In the span of less than 100 years Russia went from a Tsarist autocracy to a communist dictatorship to a democracy, reinventing itself many times throughout these changes. This essay will examine the history of Pre-Soviet Russia, the events leading up to the formation of the Soviet Union and finally the fall of the Soviet Union and the formation of the Russian Republic.  It will examine several key leaders in power during this time and many of the key events that shaped the Soviet Union. Czarist Russia (1905 to 1917) Nicholas II (r.1894-1917) Nicholas II was the last Tsar of the Romanov Dynasty. He was born in Pushkin, Russia on May 6, 1868 on the Julian calendar, which was used in Russia until 1918. His father was Alexander Aleksandrovich, who was heir to the Russian Empire and was Tsar before Nicholas II. Nicholas II inherited the throne at 26 years old when his father died on October 20, 1894. He was quoted as saying he was not ready for the throne at this time. He married Princess Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt, known publicly as Empress Alexandra, and had 4 daughters and one son. His son, Alexei, was diagnosed with Hemophilia at an early age, and the royal family began to rely heavily on a mystical healer known as Rasputin who would play a large role in later events, and is discussed later in this essay. Nicholas II was not a well-liked ruler and carried the nickname “Bloody Nicholas” throughout his rule. Several key events that helped shaped the soon to be formed Soviet Union occurred under Nicholas II rule. During his official coronation, a massive crowd formed and thousands of people were stampeded to death. Nicholas II and his wife were totally unaware of the event and proceeded to the Coronation Ball. This revealed him as a ruler who was oblivious of his subjects. Nicholas II suffered an embarrassing defeat on the battlefield, surrendering and entering a peace negotiation with Japan after that nation attacked Russia in 1904. He wound up losing the war with Japan this same year, which undermined his authority quite majorly and got people very rowdy. ("Nicholas II Biography".) In 1905, the Romanov family was introduced to a mystical healer named Rasputin. Born to a peasant family around 1869, Rasputin was believed to have supernatural powers from a very early age. He was also believed to be very cruel.  Rasputin began treating the Romanovs only son for Hemophilia and by all accounts, his treatments were effective. Many trusted advisors and the general public did not trust Rasputin, and called for him to be removed, but Empress Alexandra was a constant defender of his because of his work with her son. The Empress withstood the criticism and Rasputin would eventually become trusted advisor for the royal family. (“Rasputin Religious Figure (c. 1869–1916)”.) Nicholas II saw two revolutions during his time as leader.  The first revolt took place on January 22, 1905. This was a result of political discontent caused by the absence of political reform, economic discontent caused by poor wages and increasing taxation, poor management and the loss of the war against Japan. This was a peaceful demonstration in St. Petersburg, led by priest Father Gapon. The protesters were attacked by the Cossacks (peasants from southern Russia, renowned for military skill, later hired by the Czar). In an effort to assert the Czar's power, they open fired on the crowd killing About 200 people and wounding about 800. This day became known as “Bloody Sunday”. ("Bloody Sunday Massacre in Russia".) The 1905 attack led to strikes and riots throughout Russia. Sailors on the Russian battleship ‘Potemkin’ mutinied. Workers and soldiers formed committees called “Soviets” to represent them. Nicholas published the October Manifesto where he promised to create a Duma (Parliament). The Duma caused many middle-class people, called octobrists, to support him. He lowered taxes on the poor, he brought in Peter Stolypin as Prime Minister, he had the Okhrana track down and arrest many revolutionaries. However, as soon as Nicholas felt his power was restored, he stopped listening to the Duma. (“Bloody Sunday Massacre in Russia”.) In 1915, during World War I, Nicholas left Tsarskoe Selo for St. Petersburg to act as Commander in Chief of the Russian military following poor performance of the Russian Army. He left his wife in charge of domestic affairs in his absence, and against advisor and subject protest, she relied on Rasputin as her key advisor. ("Nicholas II Biography".) On December 29th, 1916, Rasputin was invited to a dinner party by the Czar's first cousin, Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich, and Prince Felix Yusupov where they fed him food and wine laced with cyanide. To their surprise, the poison did not kill him, so they shot him multiple times, wrapped him in a blanket and threw him in the Neva River. Local tales say he was still alive, even after seeming to drown. His body was discovered three days after the execution. (“Rasputin Religious Figure (c. 1869–1916)”.) The second revolution faced by Nicholas II began on March 8, 1917. It is known as the February Revolution because of the Julian Calendar, which was in use in Russia at the time. By February of 1917 the subjects of Nicholas II had reached a state of a boiling point and rioting broke out in St. Petersburg. Demonstrators clamoring for bread began protesting in the streets in Petrograd, now named St. Petersburg. They were joined by huge numbers of striking industrial workers. The two groups clashed with police and refused to leave the streets. Many police stations were destroyed by irate mobs. Many protesters were killed but still refused to leave the streets. Soviets again began forming again. On March 12, many soldiers defected to the demonstrator’s side. Czar Nicholas II dissolved the Duma the same day. On March 14 the Petrograd Soviet issued “Order Number One” which stated soldiers and sailors will obey only those orders that do not conflict with the Soviet (meaning the Soviets orders overruled the orders of the czar). On March 15 Nicholas II abdicated the throne to his brother Michael who refused the title. This was the end of the Czarist autocracy. ("Russian Revolution".) All of these events led up to the Bolshevik Revolution which would overthrow the Romanov Dynasty and began the term for the first Soviet leaders. Nicholas II realized that he has lost control of the nation and abdicated the throne on March 15, 1917 after being denied access to a train to take him home. ("Nicholas II Biography".)  On July 16th and 17th, Nicholas II and his entire family were killed by the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, effectively ending Romanov rule. (“1918, Romanov Family Executed”.) October Revolution: Following the February revolution, a temporary government was established with shared power between a provisional government and the Petrograd Soviet. On November 6th and 7th, 1917, leftist revolutionaries led by Vladimir Lenin staged a near bloodless coup d’etat and seized control of the government. The Bolsheviks and their allies occupied government buildings and strategic locations in Petrograd. The Petrograd Soviet formed a new form of government with Lenin as its leader. This formation angered many Russians who were in favor of the provisional government, which favored the middle class. U.S., British and French leaders were alarmed due to the decree that the Bolsheviks wanted to start global revolution. Czar loyalists and foreign powers joined together under “The Banner of the White” to defeat the Bolsheviks. The war between the Whites and Bolsheviks lasted three years, with the Bolsheviks ultimately winning. During the war, the Bolsheviks, under Lenin’s decree, instituted a Communist war effort which forced all citizens to contribute. Leon Trotsky, a former Menshevik who became a high ranking official in Bolshevik regime, formed the Red Army, whose primary task was defeating the Whites. ("Leon Trotsky Biography.") Lenin also instituted “The Red Terror”, where anyone who opposed the efforts of the war were put to death, including families of the Red Army soldiers. Meanwhile, the Whites were unable to organize or agree on strategy and were defeated as a result. ("October Revolution.") The Soviet Union (1917 to 1991) The Formation of The Soviet Union After winning the civil war, the Bolsheviks captured the different areas of the former Russian Empire and organized them into Socialist Republics governed by a Soviet. In 1922, Lenin organized these into a united state - the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). In 1924, the USSR agreed on a constitution. Each Republic sent representatives to a Congress of Soviets in Moscow. The Central Executive Committee of the Congress became the supreme governing body of the state, and the members of the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee ran the government in between meetings of the Congress. Only one party was allowed - the Communist Party. ("The Bolsheviks".) Vladimir Lenin (r.1917-24): Born Vladimir Illich Ulyanov on April 22, 1870 in Simbirsk Russia to a well-educated family. His father was an inspector of schools who was threatened by the government with early retirement due to fear about the influence public school had over Russian society. This event began to shape Lenin’s political beliefs. In 1887, his older brother was executed for his role in a plan to assassinate Emperor Alexander III. Lenin studied law but was expelled for his involvement in a student demonstration against the government. He was exiled to a family estate to live with his Sister who was also exiled. During exile became a disciple of Karl Marx, whose book “Das Kapital” would further shape Lenin's philosophies and in January 1889 Lenin declared himself a Marxist. ("Vladimir Lenin Biography".) In December 1895, Lenin and other Marxist leaders were arrested and exiled to Siberia for three years. In 1898 Lenin returned from exile to St. Petersburg with an increased leadership role in the revolution. ("Vladimir Lenin Biography".) Following the 1905 revolution, Lenin became frustrated with many fellow Marxists, particularly the Mensheviks. The Mensheviks believed that a revolution was needed but that power should go to the wealthy, while Lenin believed that power should go to the working class. ("Menshevik.") As a result in 1912 Lenin formally split to create a new party known as the Bolsheviks and would go on to become the first leader of the Soviet Union. ("Vladimir Lenin Biography".) Lenin survived a 1918 assassination attempt and stroke suffered in May of 1922. In December of 1922 he suffered a 2nd stroke. On March 10, 1923, he suffered a 3rd stroke, which limited his speech and mobility, and ended his political career. This opened the door for Joseph Stalin, whom Lenin openly opposed. Lenin died in January of 1924 of a 4th stroke. His legacy is the formation of the Soviet Union which was governed through Communism. Many of the main characteristics of the early Soviet Union adopted by Vladimir Lenin were taken from Karl Marx’s “The Communist Manifesto” and put into practice. They included an economic and social system envisioned Karl Marx; the idea that all means of production are owned in common, rather than by individuals and a single authoritarian party controls both the political and economic systems. ("Vladimir Lenin Biography".) Joseph Stalin (r.1924-53): Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili (Joseph Stalin) was born on December 18, 1879 to a working-class family. Stalin was bullied as a child and carried that resentment his entire life. Because of this, Joseph began a quest for greatness and respect. He also became very cruel and would hold grudges. ("Joseph Stalin Biography.") Stalin rose to power as general secretary of the communist party. He became the Soviet dictator upon Vladimir Lenin's death. Once in office, he forced rapid industrialization and the collectivization of agricultural land resulting in millions dying from famine while others were sent to work camps. He is quoted as saying “One death is a tragedy, a million deaths is a statistic.” when referring to conditions leading to starvation of millions of Soviet citizens during a staff meeting.  After assuming control of the Soviet Union, Stalin set out to destroy the old party leadership through political shuffling and exile. He conducted public purges of political rivals and revolutionaries. He forced the peasants back to serfdom, he killed millions in forced labor camps, and any resistance was met with lethal response. ("Joseph Stalin Biography.") Stalin organized the Red Army as a defense and fought with the Allied Forces against Hitler in World War II. After the war, a mistrust of the West took over and he established Communist regimes in many Eastern European countries creating a buffer between Western European countries and Russia out of fear of attack from the west. He attempted an unsuccessful economic blockade on Berlin in hopes of gaining control of the city, but allied forces mounted massive airlift campaigns causing it to fail. ("Joseph Stalin Biography.") He suffered his second political defeat after encouraging North Korea to invade South Korea because he falsely believed that the Soviet Union could veto allied involvement. The United States sent troops into Korea in what became known as the Korean war and fought to a stalemate after 3 years of fighting. ("Joseph Stalin Biography.") Stalin died on March 5, 1953 because of a stroke. He is credited as turning the Soviet Union into a world superpower. ("Joseph Stalin Biography.") There were several more leaders of the Soviet Union following Stalin, and all of them brought with them their own views of how the nation should be run.  They were Georgy Malenkov, Nikita Khrushchev, Leonid Brezhnev, Yury Andropov, and Konstantin Chernenko.  Malenkov had a very short tenure and his policies were openly opposed by political peers.  Khruschev had a long run as the Soviet leader, and is known for the Soviet involvement in The Bay of Pigs incident and The Cuban Missile Crisis, both of which are covered later.  Brezhnev also had a long tenure and was a strong leader who not only strengthened the Soviet military, but also worked to improve diplomatic relationships with many nations around the world.  Andropov also had a very short time as leader as poor health ended his term barely a year after taking office.  Chernenko also suffered from poor health and was in office for less than a year. ("Leaders of Muscovy, Russia, the Russian Empire, and the Soviet Union.")  Mikhail Gorbachev followed and he is discussed later in this paper.   The Cold War: The Cold War was a political battle between the United States and the Soviet Union starting shortly after World War II ended in 1945, and ending with the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. ("Cold War history.") The United states and the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin fought together as allies against the Axis Powers in World War II, however the relationship between the two nations was always tense. Americans were worried about Soviet Communism and Stalin's tyranny. The Soviet Union resented America because the US refused to recognise the USSR as a legitimate part of the international community. The Soviet Union was also angry with the US because of their delayed entry in World War II, which resulted in the death of millions of Russians. After the war, America became very worried about post-war Soviet expansionism into Eastern Europe. The Soviet Union did not like that America was stockpiling weapons and was intervening in international relationships not pertaining directly to American policy. ("Cold War history.") The Cold War officially began with an American policy called “Containment”, which was an effort to support all free people who are resisting attempted subjugation. Another American policy pertaining to Containment was the continued development of atomic weapons in an effort to intimidate the Soviet Union. This started an arms race an in 1949 the Soviets conducted their first atomic bomb. After the Soviet test, President Truman announced that the US would build an even more destructive bomb which prompted the Soviet Union to do the same. In 1946, the United States began conducting nuclear tests at the Marshall Islands. The first test of a hydrogen bomb, conducted by the United States, created a 25-square mile fireball that vaporized an island, blew a hole in the ocean floor, and had the power to destroy half of Manhattan. Over the next decade, the Soviet Union and the United States continued these types of tests with bombs that were more and more destructive.  The Soviet Union detonated the largest man-made explosion in history with the “Tsar Bomba” in 1961. ("Cold War history.") In June 1950, the first military action of the Cold War started with the Korean war where the Soviet Union backed the North Korean People's Army invaded South Korea after Joseph Stalin convinced them to do it. American officials believed that this was an attempt by the Soviet Union to spread communism throughout the world. President Truman sent the American military into Korea and the war ended in a stalemate in 1953. ("Cold War history.") On October 4, 1957, the Cold War entered space when the Soviet Union launched an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile to launch Sputnik, the world's first artificial satellite. This came as a surprise to many Americans and was viewed as a defeat for most Americans as the sentiment at the time was that American technology was vastly superior to Soviet technology. Many Americans felt threatened that the Soviet Union could use this missile to launch a nuclear attack. ("The Space Race.") In 1961, the United States launched Explorer 1, also an unmanned satellite, which started the space race. The Soviet Union once again beat America by putting the first man into space when Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin went into space on May 5th, 1961. The space race ended when the United States landed Apollo 11 on the moon in 1969, but the Cold War continued even after the space race ended. ("The Space Race.") 1961 brought the Bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis followed in 1962. This was proof that Communism was spreading to the third world and the Cold War was at its peak. ("Cold War history.") Richard Nixon took office in 1969 and began to establish diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union and the Chinese government, which was also under communist rule. In 1972, Nixon and the Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty, also known as SALT 1 which prohibited the manufacture of nuclear missiles on either side. The Cold War had calmed down, but tensions were still very high between the Soviet Union and the United States. ("Cold War history.") In 1980, Ronald Reagan took office and began to fund and provide military aid to anti-communist governments and insurgencies around the world, particularly in Grenada and El Salvador. This policy, known as the Reagan Doctrine, reignited the Cold War as the Soviet Union viewed these as hostile actions and the arms race reached new levels. The US Policy of Mutually Assured Destruction stated that each nation would be able to inflict the same level of destruction on the other, and as a result, neither had a strategic nuclear advantage. As a result of the cost of the arms race, the Soviet Union was disintegrating due to severe economic problems and growing political unrest. ("Cold War history.") In 1985 Premier Mikhail Gorbachev Introduced two policies known as glasnost, which means political openness, and perestroika, which means economic reform. In 1988, Reagan gave a speech from the Brandenburg Gate where he challenged Gorbachev by saying “Mr. Gorbachev, Tear down this wall”. By 1989 every other communist state in the Soviet Union had replaced its government with a noncommunist one. In November of 1989 the berlin wall, which was the most visible symbol of the Cold War was finally destroyed. In 1991 the Soviet Union officially collapsed and the Cold War was over. ("Cold War history.") Mikhail Gorbachev (1985-91): Born Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev on March 2, 1931 in Privolie, Stavropol kray, Russia, U.S.S.R. Mikhail Gorbachev assumed leadership of the USSR in march 1985. At the time, the Soviet Union had a stagnant economy (with little economic growth) and a poor political structure. Gorbachev had already been a part of the Communist Political Party as an active member for over 3 decades before he became the leader of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev introduced two sets of policies that he hoped would help heal the USSR known as “Glasnost” and “Perestroika”. ("Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev Biography.com.") Glasnost, or Political Openness, changed the underlying political structure of the Soviet Union and took steps toward democracy. It stopped the banning of books and the KGB began to dissolve. It gave citizens the right to speak openly about the government for the first time. It gave many new freedoms to Soviet citizens. It called for the freeing of political prisoners. Newspapers could print criticisms of the government and citizens were allowed to voice their displeasure with the government. Other parties, aside from the communist party, could participate in elections for the first time in Soviet history. ("Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev Biography.com.") Perestroika, or restructuring, particularly economic reconstruction allowed for privatization of industry and business in an effort to bring the Soviet Union up to the same standards seen in Germany and the United States. It allowed privately owned businesses for the first time since the 1920s. Workers were given the right to strike for better wages and conditions. It encouraged foreign relations. ("Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev Biography.com.") Gorbachev tried to open international relations in a communist regime and he made the Soviet Union far more westernized. The reforms themselves were well thought out and could potentially have worked out very well, but they were very slow moving and were not given enough time to fully blossom. In his farewell address, Gorbachev stated that: “The old system collapsed before the new one had time to begin working.” (“Dissolving the Soviet Union (USSR)”) Gorbachev’s policies had many negative effects when first introduced and led to unfair rationing and shortness of recourses because there were many factions in the government who did not want reform and were actively working against Gorbachev’s policies. As a result, people grew more and more frustrated with his government. Gorbachev was being bashed by critics from political and military powers within the USSR. He was losing his power. ("Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev Biography.com.") Boris Yeltsin (r.1991-99): As Gorbachev was struggling to fix the crumbling Soviet economy, Boris Yeltsin challenged his position. In the summer of 1991, Yeltsin was voted president of the Russian Republic. Gorbachev had to balance the shared power between him and Yeltsin as the Soviet Union transition to the Russian Republic. On December 25th, 1991, the Russian Republic officially replaced the Soviet Union. ("Boris Yeltsin Biography.com.") 1991 attempted Coup d’état: The August 1991 coup was planned and carried out by the communist party. The coup against Gorbachev began on August 18, led by the Communist Parties Government and Soviet military, however, the attempt was poorly planned and disorganized. They were able to place Gorbachev under house arrest while he was on vacation in Crimea, and pressured him to step down as president of Russia, but he refused. The coup leaders claimed that Gorbachev was ill and attempted to gain control of the government. Yeltsin and his party stepped in and urged the people of Russia to protest the Coup. Soldiers attempted to arrest Yeltsin but they were unable to because unarmed civilians were blocking the parliamentary building. Yeltsin climbed onto a tank and spoke to the people through a megaphone telling the troops not to turn against the people. The soldiers backed off, some of them choosing to join the resistance. As a result, Gorbachev was released from house arrest and flown to Moscow and over the next few months, he dissolved the Communist Party. In December 1991, Gorbachev resigned from presidency and Yeltsin stayed in power and became the first president of Russia. ("Coup attempt against Gorbachev collapses.") Direct References Biography.com Editors. "Nicholas II Biography." The Biography.com website, A&E Television Networks, 22 June 2016, www.biography.com/people/nicholas-ii-21032713. Biography.com Editors. “Rasputin Religious Figure (c. 1869–1916).” The Biography.com website, A&E Television http://www.biography.com/people/rasputin-9452162 History.com, Staff. 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