Modern World History - Essay Example

Modern World History Question As the modern era commenced, empires were the characteristic feature of many nations. Non-European regions also had ruling empires. These included the Asian, African and Near Eastern Empires. The Asian empire was at the centre of global trade in the early modern era. Europeans desired to trade with the Chinese in silk and porcelain, spices of South East Asia, and cotton textiles and Indigo from India. The problem was that the Europeans had nothing to trade that the Asians wanted. In the 1400s, European interest shifted to Africa especially due to its diverse population. Much of the West Africa region was controlled by the empire of Mali. Caravans of up to 25, 000 camels traded across the desert in gold and African slaves for Indian textiles. The wealth and territory of the Mali Empire was more than that of any European empire at that time. The near-Eastern empires included empires outside Europe; Mexico, China and the Middle East. In the 15th Century, these empires were far more urbanized than Europe. These empires had dense cities such as Tenochtitlan of the Aztec empire, Istanbul and Beijing. China at the time had nine out of the ten largest cities in the world and in the 15th Century, china was the most dominant nation in the world. In the mid 14th Century, most countries would have looked at Europe and assumed that it centuries later it would be at the forefront of global trade. However, other non-European empires were slowly gaining dominance due to the numerous resources they had. Europe had to strategize and find means of trading with other empires in order to retain dominance. Question 2 Explorer Christopher Columbus discovered the western hemisphere and established the foundations for the modern global economy. The voyages of Columbus that led European Conquistadors to the western hemisphere, the Middle East, and other regions were referred to as the Columbian exchange. It is believed that much of the American history learned today, started with the Columbian exchange. Discovery of the Americas was the first step in a process that led to the spread of civilization throughout the world and expanded global trade network. The Columbian exchange involved a series of population movements including the spread of nomadic peoples across Central Asia. Following the death of the prophet Muhammad, Islam also spread outside the Middle East. Opening up of the Americas was beneficial in that there was the introduction of the horse, the cow and various grains that increased food production in the Americas. The cultivation of potato, corn and manioc can all be traced back to the Western hemisphere. The Columbian exchange led to increased economic well-being of the Americas. The Columbian exchange also had negative consequences associated with it. Some observers were of the view that it led to harsh colonial exploitation and the spread of virulent diseases that devastated local populations. The Spanish economy was distorted because vast amounts of gold and silver were imported leading to price revolution. Whatever shortcomings that were associated with the Columbian exchange, it is undeniable that it was beneficial to the world since it heralded modernization. The effects that were suffered by various groups varied from beneficial to detrimental. Ultimately, the Columbian exchange marks the main step in transition from the traditional to the modern world. Question 3 In the 15th century, Africa’s international connection became more linked to the Atlantic Ocean and the Americas beyond. At least twelve million Africans went through forced emigration because of the Atlantic plantation system. In the voyage from Africa to the Americas, the slaves were subjected to immense horrors that changed world history. A unique relationship between Africa and Europe contributed wealth and development for Europe but devastated and depopulated Africa. Trading in African captives initially was meant to supplement a trade in human beings that was already in existence in Europe. From the origins of plantation system, human beings had come to be considered as a commodity that aided in production of sugar. The slaves ferried from Africa were used to grow crops such as sugarcane and cotton. The slaves performed the strenuous tasks of planting, weeding and harvesting the crops. They were also involved in turning the raw cane into a semi-processed product for export. Big ‘planters’ would own up to 40 slaves on a 200 to 300 acre cotton farm. In the American South, White free laborers were the majority of the population whereas in most states blacks were the minority. The plantations in the South were relatively small as compared to those in the Caribbean. Republican farmers and planters controlled plantations in the South as sovereign and independent state legislatures. Owing to the harsh working conditions in the plantations, it was common for slaves to run away from their masters. Such slaves, if caught, were subjected to harsh punishment. Between 1770 and 1890, the plantation complex came under sustained attacks from abolitionists motivated by Enlightenment liberal republicanism and evangelical Christianity. In the Democratic revolution that lasted from 1776 to 1868, the plantation was finally destroyed. Question 4 Portuguese was first to kidnap people from the west coast of Africa and ship them back to Europe. After discovery of the Americas, the demand for African slaves grew remarkably. The earliest shipment of African slaves to Spain took place in around 1503. Most of the African slaves were taken from West African region such as present day Senegal. The interchanges between Africa, Europe and the Americas reached peak levels in the eighteenth century. The Atlantic world that had been created involved land and natural resources in America, financial, military and political power of Europe, and labor from Africa. Slavery was not uncommon in previous human history, but it reached new levels because of the commercial orientation of the sugar industry. The harsh working conditions drove many African slaves to rebel and run away from their masters. To escape slavery, the slaves resorted to slave religion where they found strength in masses. The slaves formed a strong majority and were converted to Catholic saints and pursued biblical motifs of liberation. Christianity facilitated the end of slavery since it encouraged manumission, the voluntary freeing of slaves. Other slaves worked hard and saved their earnings to buy their freedom from their masters. In British North America, manumission was uncommon and the only remedy came in the form of labor organizations. Slaves formed unions which advocated for their rights and with time they were able to buy their freedom or be released by their masters. Legal freedom only came after slavery was banned by Congress. Question 5 Europe started a process of unprecedented expansion in the fifteenth century that had by 1650, influenced most parts of the world. It is a wonder that Europe and not China that took over the Americas despite the Chinese having a similar biological edge. By the sixteenth century, Europeans were superior in naval technology and China was receding in its naval technology and explorations. The ships used by the Europeans were of superior quality because by the 1400s, they were proficient in new naval technology and tactics. They had adopted the compass and astrolabe which gave them a better sense of direction during their voyages; thus avoiding land-hugging. They also found advantage in the fact that they were skilled chart-makers and cartographers. European ships also had remarkable maneuverability and firepower that allowed them to sink enemy vessels without boarding or ramming at close quarters. The powers of the monarch of Europe had recently been expanded, and were oriented toward maritime adventure. These structures provided support for overseas expansion for the Europeans. Europeans achieved naval superiority by the sixteenth century because after 1440, China abandoned its extensive naval forays into the Indian Ocean. The Chinese possessed ships equipped with artillery and firearms but by 1800, they fell behind in using technology. China was less developed than Europe since they had minimal incentives to improve their technology. Question 6 Between 1500and 1750, the nature of war changed the European society as it attained naval superiority. Europe underwent ‘military revolution’ in the century following 1560. The military changes were gradual, and drawn from piecemeal experience accumulation which could be traced back to fifteenth century Italy. Military and naval technological developments in Europe through the eighteenth century included the use of firepower, and lighter and more artillery. The Europeans also invested in more flexible formations and effective drill. These activities increased their capacity to conquer those who challenged them at sea. In the later seventeenth century, Europe made lastingly significant developments in tactics, military organization and weaponry. The holistic approach gave them the advantage since they focused not only on technology, but also administrative strategy. Europe exemplified better systems of administration and supply for armies than other countries. Additionally, the period after 1660 was marked by an impressive growth in army size. The size of the armies was unprecedented even as they engaged in uninterrupted conflict. Fortification and siege technology was also developed. Further advantage lay in the increased sophistication in laying out fortifications and development of new ballistic technology that made the advance of a besieging army difficult and dangerous. Question 7 To be modern refers to move from the old manner of doing things to a new and better way. Modernization is a concept that touches on every aspect of life including societal systems and structure, resource use and management, and beliefs and practices. Modernization is driven by changes within the society and also from external factors. The early modern era witnessed changes in all levels and structures of the society. Fro instance, there was the introduction of slavery s a means of increasing labor as a factor of production. In the same time, religious modernization occurred leading to opposition of the same practice. There was also resistance from labor organizations that led to abolition of the practice and development of the concept of ‘free slaves’. Technological advancements were also a feature of modernization. Countries ventured into the sea as they travelled to distant lands in search of new opportunities for economic development. While at sea, they had to contend with competition thus war would ensue. Different crews would then have to fight to ensure their survival. Such occurrences triggered development in naval technologies. Art and music as forms of expression also underwent changes during modernization. Transition from baroque to renaissance to modern music was accompanied by changes in form and structure of composition. As different elements gain precedence, art style would undergo changes from abstract to expressionism. Works Cited Strayer, Robert W. Ways of the World with Sources, High School Edition: A Global History. New York, NY: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2013. Read More