What Characterised the Anglo-American Special Relationship During the Cold War - Essay Example

Anglo-American Special Relationship during the Cold War Reference to Anglo-American "special relationship” was first made in 5th March 1946 by Winston Churchill while on lecture tour of America. The United States of America and Britain have historically cooperated in areas of economic, diplomatic and military engagements based on existence of common interests held by these countries. The special relationship is not only a product of successful alliance during the Second World War period, but is also a product of common cultural and historical heritage between Britain and its former colony. These relationships were cemented by the establishment of close ties between subsequent leaders of these countries as they sought to work together in national goals of influencing global economic and political systems. The cold war era is one of the period were the United States and Britain cooperated in a number of areas as both nations sought to secure their interests against resilient Soviet Union. The Anglo-American cooperation during cold was set had the objective of establishing close coordination in areas such economic performance, sharing of technological innovations and enhancing security through cooperation in defence and military movements in strategic areas. The strategies for achieving these goals were pegged at achievement of mutual benefit although there were instances where the two friendly nations were unable to share a common perspective on an issue as seen in the British attempt to ouster Nasser from Egypt presidency, which the United States did not support.1 However, the Anglo-American special relationship worked for the benefit of the countries especially when facing a perceived common threat. Therefore, given the mutual perception of Russia held by both Britain and the United States, it was only practical that the relationship would establish more areas that they agreed than where the countries did have a consensus on the best approach to handle a given domestic or international situation. Many nations that emerged from the Second World War as well as countries that had gained their independence in the past few decades faced considerable danger of falling under the influence of Soviet Union especially since they did not have strong institutional and political structures to assert their own identity. However, the reaction from these countries towards the Soviet Union could not be compared to the level of cooperation put in place by the United States and Britain as the two countries developed a coalition to face any potential threat from the Soviet Union in any region of the world. The following sections highlights some of the major incidences that characterized the Anglo-American special relationship during the cold war era with special attention being given to economic, political and security issues that the partners were involved in as they sought to overcome the soviet union influence globally. Economic cooperation After the Second World War, the United States and Soviet Union emerged as the two superpowers that had considerable differences over future global political ideology. The cold war commenced after the end of the Second World War and was based on ideological differences between the United States and allies, forming the western bloc on one side and the Soviet Union forming the eastern bloc on the other2. The United States wanted to expand democratic principles to the new independent nations that were formally part of the USSR leading to the development of ideological wars. Although the main powers were not involved in direct warfare, they offered military support to opposing groups in different continents. One of the areas that characterised the relationship during this period is the economic position of Britain and other European countries. The Anglo-American Special Relationship was therefore part of the efforts by these countries to overcome post-war financial turmoil and lack of world economic leadership. This relationship attempted to assert the responsibility of the two greatest democracies towards global economic stability. The US needed an alley in Europe to curtail the spread of communism in different parts of the world including former British colonies.3 However, the partnership had to address the economic ruin and subsequent depression in which these experienced in these countries after the Second World War. The United States was at the forefront of economic might supported by an expanding economy and government, which placed the country as the leading international power. While the United States was enjoying this unprecedented rate of growth, Britain and other, western European countries were still struggling due to the ravages of the war.4 The war had left these countries in debt with the UK owing post-war overseas debt averaging nearly 10 percent of pre-war wealth by 1945. Further, the UK continued to post low net income from a foreign investment that was now worth less than 40 percent of pre-war value with England posting debt liabilities of approximately two billion pounds.5 The economic situation was especially worsened by the fact that Britain had relinquished control of most of her colonies that had offered sources of raw materials and market for various industries. Consequently, there was dire need of a post war economic strategy that would that would enable the nation reposition and continue to dominate the next phase in global political and economic spheres as in the previous centuries. The post-war situation that Britain was in informed the economic cooperation with the United States as the countries strived to rise from the debt, which had condemned the once ruling economic power into a debtor nation. Aligning with the United States in the post-war era and into the initial phase of cold war was an important approach for Britain as it mitigated the economic disadvantages of the economy. The Anglo-American special relationship was therefore important in establishing economic cooperation that reduced the impact of depression and get Britain back to international commercial system, therefore attain stability. One of the approaches taken to improve economic fortune for Britain and other European nations was to introduce the Bretton Woods system in 1944.6 Under this economic system, currency used in UK and the rest of European countries that had been ravaged by war was pegged to the United States’ dollar. The Bretton Woods system marked the onset of reconstruction period and economic development that was to be stirred by newly formed international institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Additionally, there was the introduction of a flexible fixed foreign exchange rate structure where currencies in countries that would ratify the resolutions were pegged to gold reserves with the IMF having power to intercede in situations where an imbalance of payments exists. Since the United States dollar was equally stable, the currency was later adopted for the system therefore establishing a dollar standard maintained stable exchange rates and stop irregular currency inflations that would temporarily lead to commercial benefit for some countries. Further, The United Kingdom was a beneficiary of monitory assistance from the United States as the country was given a 3.75 billion dollar loan to be repaid at a rate of 2 percent interest while the remaining Lend-Lease agreement debts were also were reduced.7 Among the strategies used by the US to preserve the political and economic status of Western Europe was the announcement and later implementation of the Truman doctrine. The Truman Doctrine refers to the announcement which become USA’s foreign policy made by President Truman that the country will provide both economic and military support to any country facing threat from communism or totalitarian ideology. The announcement was made following a decision by the British Embassy in 1947 which made U.S. State Department representatives aware of Great Britain’s ending financial assistance to the Greece and Turkey. The American legislators had been observing the situation in Greece as the country continued to crumble due economic and political problems that were multiplied by the activities of the Communist-led uprising recognized as the National Liberation Front. The sanctioning of aid to Hungary and Greece by the US Congress signaled a change in US foreign policy from its longstanding policy of isolationism to USs policy of providing global leadership and ended its longstanding policy of isolationism8. This policy was expanded to cover other European countries apart from Greece and Turkey as the United States sought to improve economic and infrastructural development in countries that were emerging from war or involved in conflicts involving democratic and socialist forces. During the implementation phase, the United Kingdom was among the greatest beneficiaries of the Truman doctrine which was expanded under the Marshall plan. The united states favored the Britain through the approximately 3,297 million dollars given through Marshall Aid between 1948 and 1951 with the figure being about one third in excess to what France received in the same time.9 Defence and security cooperation While the Anglo-American special relationship sought to strengthen the economic position of Britain in post-war and cold war era, it is in the areas of security and defence that the cooperation had profound effect for the policies adopted by these two nations. After the Second World War, the United States played an essential role in propping UK’s security and defence. The United States maintained significant number of its troops in Europe to secure these countries from falling under the control of the Soviet Union. Britain benefited from this arrangement as it reduced defence costs towards securing the region. Given the role of nuclear weapons in escalation of cold war between the western bloc and Soviet Union, it was only practical that the unitised states support one of her closest allies to develop nuclear weapon and defence systems. One of the areas that led to establishment of a closer working relationship in security and defence between the United States and Britain is amendment made to the McMahon Act together with formation of the Mutual Defence Agreement in 1958.10 The outcome of these changes and legislations is that Britain was guaranteed greater access to American classified information and support towards the development of nuclear deterrent system. Although Britain had already acquired the necessary technology to develop nuclear weapons, the country did not have the technological capacity to develop a delivery system. Consequently, the agreement made it possible for Britain to finalise its nuclear weapon acquisition process while also cutting down on costs and solving the problem of location. The United States developed a missile system in the form of the submarine-based Polaris system that was later replaced by the Trident system then handed over to Britain to improve the country’s nuclear position. Further, cooperation between the United States and United Kingdom under the Mutual Defence Agreement of 1958 the accorded European country access to Nevada Test Site, which, enabled the United Kingdom to conduct underground nuclear tests from 1963.11 Some critics of the Anglo-American special relationship have used the countries’ nuclear cooperation to highlight the skewed nature of the relationship. It has been argued that the United Kingdom is at a disadvantaged as it has greatly relied on the American defence and military superiority to build on its own systems. Such a situation places the long-term military and defence development in jeopardy when the assistance is revoked. This was the case with the development of Skybolt, which was cancelled after a number of failures. Skybolt was developed as an air-launched ballistic missile that included a nuclear warhead developed by the United States in 1950s with the United Kingdom joining the project in 1960. The United Kingdom had seen this as a chance to develop its own V bomber but the program was cancelled in December 1962 after the United States identified the development of submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) as the best defensive system12. The United States’ perception of the project was different from the stand held by United Kingdom, which had until the cancellation based its nuclear deterrent force on Skybolt. The cancellation led to disagreements between the historically close allies in what was later called the "Skybolt Crisis". Although the crisis was solved amicably through an agreement that ennobled the Royal Navy take over the UGM-27 Polaris, it highlighted the potential danger that could arise from such engagements. However, supporters of the Anglo-American special relationship have noted the disagreement as a minor issue in the continued relationship between the two countries. Although the United Kingdom has developed its nuclear deterrence system through reliance on assistance from United States, this was the best approach at the time considering the lack of funds and technical capabilities to undertake such program. Therefore, the support offered by the United States was critical for defence of the United Kingdom and other western European countries considering the Soviet Union had already made great achievements in its own nuclear development. Apart from cooperating in the area of nuclear power, the Anglo-American special relationship in security also included intelligence sharing. The United States and Britain entered into first cryptographic agreement based on the British-united states security agreement (BRUSA) of 1943 calumniating in the introduction of a similar cipher machine.13 The new system was designed to provide special protection of classified information from falling into the hands of the Soviet Union. The countries have also cooperated in procurement of military facilities based on the Anglo-American understanding that placed the United Kingdom as the Level One international partner in F-35 Lightning II aircraft procurement project.14 Cooperation for this procurement led to closer working relationship between Britain contractor BAE System and the American contractor Lockheed Martin.15 Areas of non-cooperation Even with the greater cooperation over the years, two conflicts with significant impact to the global positioning of the two countries failed to attract support from the other partner. One of the conflicts is the Vietnam War, which provided the United States with unique challenges as it attempted to impose its ideological position in the region through military intervention. Britain pointed out a number of issues that complicated its position therefore making it difficult for the nation to join the Vietnam War. Among these reasons was the fact that the British prime minister, Harold Wilson had assumed the position as the co-chair of the Geneva peace conference of 1954.16 This conference played a central role in partitioning of Indochina, which meant Britain could not go to war against the nations it had helped create. Additionally, Britain’s capacity was already stretched as it was involved in another operation in Malaysia known as ‘Confrontation’.17 The difference in perception of the Vietnam War by United States and Britain was evident when in 1966; the European nation had to offer a public dissociation from certain American activities in Vietnam18. One of the factors that were decisive in the decisions taken by Britain was the fact that Labour party won the 1966 general election in addition to gaining a 94-seat majority. This victory increased the number of left-wing politicians who wielded considerable influence over national policies at the time. Therefore, when the United States began bombing petrol, oil, lubricants facilities in Hanoi and Haiphong, there were considerable anti-American sentiments with many critics noting the country had targeted innocent civilians. Therefore, Wilson was force to dissociate Britain from such initiatives undertaken by the United States in order to satisfy the radicals within the Labour party. This decision led to conclusions in Washington that Britain had effectively betrayed its ally. Having made its stand on the war clear, the British government under Prime Minister Wilson initiated an arbitration scheme that was perceived as being necessary to end the bloodshed and destruction in the region. Britain sought peaceful conclusion of the war through the Commonwealth Peace Mission of June 1965, and the 1967 Kosygin initiative. Wilson was therefore instrumental in the arbitration processes that were conducted by a number of leaders from Commonwealth nations19. The Vietnam War was therefore part of historical instances when the long-standing Anglo-American special relationship failed to influence the countries into forming a joint military intervention in Vietnam. These disagreements were also experienced over lack of United States assistance when Britain and France attempted to remove President Nasser from power to allow the countries control Suez Canal20. The 1956 sues conflict was a classical of existing differences in the united states and Brattain’s perception of the Middle East, colonialism and communism. Britain had relinquished its claim over the Suez Canal, an important passageway to India in 1957 hoping to appease the Egyptian president into cooperating in regional matters. This decision was also supported by the fact that the United States had also given financial support to develop the Aswan high dam for irrigation and electricity generation. Nasser did not cooperate with Britain instead choosing to denigrate the Baghdad pact and reject peace deal with Israel brokered by the United States and Britain as he harbored ambitions of championing the Arab world against colonialism and exploitation by western powers21. Since the United States did not have interests in the region, Britain did not anticipate any antagonism from its ally as is sought support from France to commence military action against Egypt. When Britain and France launched attacks against Egypt, the United States was among the first countries to condemn the action. The United States through president Eisenhower argued there was still room for diplomatic solution to the conflict and did not see the need for military intervention22. The United States used its position in the United Nations to develop a resolution on ceasefire exerting pressure on Britain and France to end aggression against Egypt. From the foregoing, the United States and Britain have had a special relationship that has enabled the countries overcome various challenges in the past. The cold war era was one of the periods when the Anglo-American special relationship was called to test. The countries cooperated in many areas of economic, political and security with the relationship during the cold war era was seen as important especially in curtailing the influence of socialism advocated by the Soviet Union. European countries, including Britain, that had been devastated by the world war received considerable economic and defence boost from the United States to ensure stability of their institutions. The cooperation between these countries enabled Britain advance its nuclear technology by taking advantage of advanced American systems. However, the relationship was not always smooth as seen from various areas of disagreements such as the failure of the United Kingdom to send troops during the Vietnam War and the American rebuke of British activities during the Suez crisis. References Barrie, D. & Butler, A. 2007. Dollars and sense: Currency rate headache sees industry seek remedy with government. Aviation Week & Space Technology, 167(23), 40. Bostdorff, D. M. 2008. Proclaiming the Truman Doctrine: the Cold War call to arms. Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 2008. Clarke, B. 2012. Britains Cold War. Stroud, Gloucestershire: The History Press. Colman, J. 2004. A ‘Special Relationship? Harold Wilson, Lyndon B. Johnson and Anglo- American Relations at the Summit, 1964-8. Manchester University Press. Dunbabin, J. P. D. 2014. The Post-imperial age: the great powers and the wider world. London: Routledge. Gaddis, J. L. 2005. The Cold War: A New History. London: Penguin Press. Gardner, R. 2001. The Marshall Plan Fifty Years Later: Three What-Ifs and a When’, in Schain, M. (ed.) The Marshall Plan: Fifty Years After. New York: Palgrave, p. 119-129. Hathaway, M. R. 1990. Great Britain and the United States: Special Relations since World War II. Boston: Twayne Publishers. Hahn, P. 2004. United States, Great Britain, And Egypt, 1945-1956: Strategy And Diplomacy in the early cold war. Chapel Hill: University Of North Carolina Press Lundestad, G. 2010. East, West, North, South: major developments in international politics since 1945. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. Kargbo, M. S. 2006. British foreign policy and the conflict in Sierra Leone, 1991 2001. Bern: Peter Lang. Showalter, D. & DuQuenoy, P. 2000. The Cold War: Second Series, Volume 2. Detroit: St. James Press. Ritchie, N. 2012. A Nuclear Weapons-free World?: Britain, Trident and the Challenges Ahead. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Petrescu, R. V., & Petrescu, F. I. 2013. Lockheed Martin Color. Canterbury: Books on Demand. West, N. 2009. The A to Z of British Intelligence. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Press. Read More