African History - Essay Example

History and Political Science 10 February African History The impact of WWI on the colonial administration and governance in Africa and the involvement of Indigenous Africans in the War Different parts of Africa reacted differently to the invasion of Europeans in Africa, which took place in the nineteenth century (Mentan 303). A number of Indigenous groups from Africa had suffered from long periods of strife. A region like East Africa was uncertain of the future when it welcomed European presence. In other nations such as Tanganyika, now Tanzania, Ghana, Ethiopia, Zimbabwe and Libya, there was a lot of resistance. All in all, peace was hoped for in all regions. During the initial years that colonialists lived in Africa, Indigenous Africans generally expressed no serious reactions. This is because very little or no impact could be witnessed in their lives due to colonialism. Colonialism however continued to grow and intensify prompting the reaction of Africans in the regions mentioned and a few other regions. The period during which there was stiff resistance to colonial rule by Africans was known as the Scramble for Africa (Mentan 303). Despite the struggle, colonialist however managed to intensify their administration. In 1914, when the First World War broke out, most parts of Africa apart from Ethiopia and Liberia had been colonized (Mentan 303). The colonial administration had been able to deal with the resistance of Indigenous Africans. The war played a major role in institutionalizing colonial administration. This can be seen from the fact that by the end of the war, the entire African continent had been successfully colonized. By this time, all efforts by Africa to resist colonial administration had been defeated by the European colonialists. In addition, there were substantial changes in the pattern of colonial administration. In 1914 for example, Northern and Southern Nigeria British Protectorates were amalgamated (“First World War,” devhub.com). Italian Libya got an addition of a large region of western Egypt, Italy took part of Sudan, and parts of Ivory Coast, Sudan and Niger came to be under French rule (“First World War,” devhub.com). After the First World War, the people of Africa remained quiet over the issue. Although they decided not to oppose colonialism they were overall not happy with the colonial administration. In conclusion, the First World War played a major role in institutionalizing colonial administration in Africa. This is because although most Indigenous Africans opposed it, they were all defeated by the European colonialists during the war. 2. Ways in which the Second World War affected Africans struggle for Independence and European Leadership in Africa The Second World War had profound effects upon Africans struggle for Independence and the European leadership in Africa. As Europeans recruited Africans to fight for them as militia men against Axis powers, Africans got to witness the way of living in Europe, which was far much better than that in Africa (Mungazi 13). This is because while Europeans fought against oppression and independence, they had taught Africans to accept them. This gave Africans a new level of consciousness and they began to view themselves in an entirely new way, as well as the character of the colonialists and colonial administration. The fact that Africans had now grown to perceive themselves differently caused a gradual disintegration of colonial administration in Africa. The war led to a rise of campaigns fighting for the independence of Africans, nationalism and an overall new political climate (“The Effects of WW2,” sahistory.org.za). This happened despite the fact that colonialist had been able to establish power in Africa after the First World War. It is however important to note that the struggle for independence by Africans was bolstered by both the First World War and the Second World War. Although the Africans remained quiet under the colonial administration after the First World War, they were resentful of the fact that Europeans were taking their land and forcing them to work in order to pay taxes introduced by the Europeans with the aim of generating more revenue from Africa (“The Fight,” sahistory.org.za). This was the main reason behind the rise of resistance movements. These rebellions were organized against colonial authorities mainly by the African chiefs. Tensions also grew between white communities and colonial authorities mainly due to the rising demand for labor and land (“The Fight,” sahistory.org.za). The few Africans who had managed to get educated formed political parties that lobbied for the rights of Africans. All these developments led to the break out of the Second World War, which ultimately played part in institutionalized independence in African nations. In conclusion, the Second World War weakened and challenged European leadership in Africa. Prior to the war, Africans had grown to be aware of their rights, while White settlers and colonial authorities clashed over labor and land. It is for these reasons that most African nations managed to gain their independence after the war. 3. Developments concerning democracy and nationalism and the aims of the participants, their methods of implementation, and outcomes Prior to the twentieth century, the struggle for democracy mainly concerned suffrage. In most nations, democracy did not emerge suddenly, but rather gradually in a chain of steps. According to Przeworski, Alvarez, Cheibub and Limongi, “typically, what happened first was that legislatures, elected on a nonpartisan basis and under highly restricted suffrage, divided along partisan lines and began to contest elections on a partisan basis” (16). In democracy, the participants usually have a number of aims, methods of implementation and desired outcomes. Their aims can be generally grouped into being empowered to make political and personal decisions concerning the society and themselves. Although the implementation of democracy can be carried out in many ways, majority rule has been adopted as the main strategy. The strategy involves choosing “majority rule through elected representatives” (Ball, Caldwell and Pranis 7). The outcomes of democracy can be good or bad. On the positive side, participants get to make political and personal decisions concerning the society and themselves, while on the negative side, the actions of participants who are free to hold assemblies and engage in other actions, sometimes lead to instability (Yu 3). The concept of nationalism on the other hand has many definitions. In all definitions however, it is laid out as a concept that promotes the well-being of nations and places the nation at the axis of its concerns. Therefore, its three main goals are “national autonomy, national unity and national identity” (Smith 9). Smith defines nationalism as “an ideological movement for attaining and maintaining autonomy, unity and identity for a population which some of its members deem to constitute an actual or potential nation” (9). In nationalism, the participants’ main aim is to promote a nation. Different nations have different ways of implementing nationalism. In most nations, slogans and symbols of nationalism such as currency, flags, passports, national anthems, architecture and works of art are used to promote nationalism. Just like democracy, nationalism has both positive and negative outcomes. On the positive side it promotes unity, which is the basis for team work and peace, while on the negative side, it can generate hatred towards outsiders. In conclusion, both democracy and nationalism are aimed at promotion of well-being for individuals and nations. 4. Social stratification among indigenous Africans caused by Eurocentric education systems Eurocentrism is a practice present in academia and other international affairs. The term was coined in the twentieth century, a period when many colonized nations were undergoing decolonization. The practice upholds western perspectives, especially those that are centered on Europe. Educational systems centered on this practice are referred to as Eurocentric education systems. These systems are more presented in Africa than other parts of the world; this is mainly due to the fact that Africa was colonized by Europe and thus a number of European doctrines were passed. Among the aspects greatly affected by Eurocentrism was education in Africa. According to Abdi, Puplampu and Dei, the main problem with Eurocentric education systems in Africa, “has been the intentional exclusion of African indigenous knowledge, histories, languages and cultures from the school curricula” (73). Eurocentric education systems in Africa were introduced and implemented by the colonial authorities. There has not been much foreign reaction towards the issue of the systems being Eurocentric. However, in recent years indigenous Africans have been making attempts at introducing Afrocentric education systems by including languages, cultures, histories and knowledge from Africa. Although introducing education in Africa was a good deed from the colonialists, social stratification among indigenous Africans and between the indigenous population and settlers increased. This was due to the rise of social classes that have most of the times been determined by people’s level of education and skin color. In Africa, the educational systems followed to this day are those introduced during the era of colonization. According to Ndirangu, although Africans get to be educated, the Eurocentric education systems still hold them as captives of western ideologies (jual.nipissingu.ca). In fact, it can be said that rather than being liberated, indigenous Africans become dependent on western ways of doing things. This continues despite the fact that most nations gained independence after colonization. The main problem with these Eurocentric education systems is that although Africa is now educated, it continues to view its problems through a western perspective. This calls for the need for education systems in Africa to be revised, so that they can be based on the cultural and economic realities of Africa (Ndirangu, jual.nipissingu.ca). In conclusion, education for indigenous Africans was a good development that was introduced by the colonial authorities. The problem came from the fact that they seem to ignore the African languages, knowledge, cultures and histories and instead uphold those of westerners, which led to social stratification among indigenous Africans and between the indigenous population and settlers. 5. A period during which South Africa experienced migration of Europeans who became permanent settlers The first immigration of Europeans to South Africa was in the fifteenth century; the first people of European origin to arrive in South Africa were the Portuguese, who entered the nation through the Cape of Good Hope (“South Africa,” msu.edu). They were however not permanent settlers. Permanent settlement of Europeans in South Africa occurred later in the seventeenth century; the permanent settlers included Germans, the Dutch and French (“South Africa,” msu.edu). The main reasons these European settlers permanently migrated to South Africa were to benefit from trade that was promising due to the country’s location along the coast and vast resources which included massive acres of land, gold and diamonds. As soon as the Europeans had managed to control the region of the Cape of Good Hope and managed to spread their settlements, conflicts over social and economic issues and land use began to rise. Disputes over livestock ownership and land use occurred between the European settlers and indigenous South Africans such as the South African Bantus, Bushmen and the Khoisan. As a result of this, each side would attack the other. Economic conflicts occurred among the European settlers and each side wanted to protect its commercial interests. An example is the conflict between Netherlands and Britain over the Castle of Good Hope. Social conflicts occurred between the indigenous South Africans and the European settlers and among the settlers. The main reason for these conflicts is that the Europeans believe that since they brought industrialization and civilization among other things, they should have a greater share (“South Africa,” sahistory.org.za). In conclusion, although there was immigration of Europeans to South Africa prior to the seventeenth century, permanent settlement began in the seventeenth century. As a result of the permanent settlement of these Europeans, conflicts arose between them and indigenous South Africans and among the settlers. The reasons behind these conflicts were social, economic, land use and livestock ownership. 6. The development, causation, and construction of the South African apartheid system According to Beck, “apartheid refers to the system of racial discrimination and white political domination adopted by the National Party while it was in power from 1948 to 1994” (125). During this era, the life of every person living in South Africa from the Indian South Africans, the colored people, the Africans and the Whites was separately dictated by the law from the time of birth to the time of death. Racial segregation was a common phenomenon in sports fields, theatres, restaurants, park benches, colleges, schools, businesses, and offices. There was also segregation over political rights and land. Residential areas were also segregated. Beck points out that “apartheid came to an official end with Nelson Mandela’s election as South African president in 1994” (126). The key group behind the introduction of apartheid in South Africa was the National Party; this was after it won the 1948 elections (“African National Congress,” sahistory.org.za). The reason behind this was to oppose the government’s introduction of laws that were racist and repressive towards the indigenous South Africans. Protests were mainly held in form of strikes and campaigns. The nations involved in the system included Germany, Portugal, France and South Africa. In conclusion, the apartheid system in South Africa was aimed at separating people based on their races and skin color. The main reason behind the establishment of the system was to oppose the government’s introduction of laws that were racist and repressive towards the indigenous South Africans. The era came to an end when Nelson Mandela became the president of South Africa. Works Cited Abdi, Ali A., Korbla P. Puplampu and George Jerry Sefa Dei. African Education and Globalization: Critical Perspectives. Oxford: Lexington Books, 2006. Print. “Africa National Congress.” sahistory.org.za. n.d. Web. 11 February 2014. Ball, Jennifer, Wayne Joseph Caldwell and Kay Pranis. Doing Democracy with Circles: Engaging Communities in Public Planning. Minnesota: Living Justice Press, 2010. Print. Beck, Roger B. The History of South Africa. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2000. Print. “First World War-African Continent Consequences.” devhub.com. 18 October 2011. Web. 10 February 2014. Mungazi, Dickson A. The Last Defenders of the Laager: Ian D. Smith and F.W. de Klerk. Westport: Praeger Publishers, 1998. Print. Ndirangu, Karugia. “Shattered Dreams: The Success and Failures of Education in Kenya during the Pre- and Post-Colonial Days.” jual.nipissingu.ca. 2009. Web. 11 February 2014. Przeworski, A., Michael E. Alvarez, Jose Antonio Cheibub and Fernando Limongi. Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950-1990. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Print. Smith, Anthony D. Nationalism. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2010. Print. “South Africa: Culture and Conflict.” sahistory.org.za. n.d. Web. 11 February 2014. “South Africa: History.” msu.edu. 2014. Web. 11 February 2014. Mentan, Tatah. The State in Africa: An Analysis of Impacts of Historical Trajectories of Global Capitalist Expansion and Domination in the Continent. Bamenda: Langaa Research and Publishing Common Initiative Group, 2010. Print. “The Effects of WW2 in Africa.” sahistory.org.za. n.d. Web. 10 February 2014. “The Fight against Colonialism and Imperialism in Africa.” sahistory.org.za. n.d. Web. 10 February 2014. Yu, Keping. Democracy Is a Good Thing: Essays on Politics, Society, and Culture in Contemporary China. Washington DC: The Brookings Institution, 2009. Print.   Read More