History of the Ottoman Empire and Japan - Essay Example

Discuss Ottoman and Japanese attempts in the period from the middle decades of the nineteenth to opening decades of the twentieth century (c. 1820-1920) to improve upon historical and contemporary states experience in reconstitutiing their own political systems I. The Ottoman Empire Beginning in the 14th century, the Ottoman Empire rose to power by the series of conquests that did not only expand its territory but also its military might. The Ottoman Empire, begun its succession of conquests with its reunification by Muhammad I, followed by Murad II and Muhammad II that led to the conquest of Varna and capture of Constantinople that made the Ottoman Empire as the oldest surviving empire of Europe within a century (Rahme 31). The old Ottoman Empire however declined and became as the Turkey that we know today after it allied with Germany in the First World War. Prior to its dissolution attempts were made to improve its state in reconstituting its own political system but the reforms instituted were just too late to save the old Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire decline begun with the series of war beginning with the invasion of Egypt and Syria by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798 to 1801. The intervention of the French, Russian and British due to the advances and occupation of Muhammad Ali Pasha’s army in Anatolia and Syria also precipitated its decline as it has grown weaker due to the war. The call for independence of the Greeks that eventually led to its independence as a self-governing nation also diminished its territory. This led to the Tsar Nicholas of Russia in the Protocol of London in 1841 to assess that the Ottoman Empire’s downfall is already imminent. European leaders however were concerned how will the Ottoman collapse will pose to the general peace. Such they made an attempt to maintain the Ottoman State so as not to cause instability in their region. They agreed to maintain its integrity by “reversing the potentially devastating results of war at the negotiating table and, in 1856, admitting the Ottoman state into the “Concert of Europe” (Quataert 56). Thus the European consensus then was to keep Ottoman state intact despite its weak stature as an attempt to maintain it as a viable state. Internally, an attempt was made by Selim III and Mahmud II instituted drastic reform known as the Tanzimat or reform or reorganization as an effort to reinvigorate and reconstitute their own political systems. One of the main reason of the decline of Ottoman was its harsh and inept rule coupled with a bankrupt coffers and Tanzimat was implemented to address it. Hat-i Shariff launched the firstTanzimat in 1839 where all persons banished or condemned to death will have their properties forfeited to the crown. The second reformatory move was to remove the rights of Ottoman governors to condemn men to death. The Ottoman officers such as the Paşas, the Ağas and others were ordered not to condemn any man to death whether Raya or Turk unless it is sanctioned by the court or Kadi. A judicial system for appeal was also instituted to one of the Kazaskers of Europe or Asia that goes up to the Sultan himself. Both the external initiatives of the European leaders to maintain the territorial integrity of Ottoman and the Empire’s initiative to reform itself through Tanzimat however did not reverse Ottoman’s decline because the reforms instituted just came in too late. Even with the adoption of the Constitution of 1876 to westernize the institutions of the Ottoman Empire and the holding of elections and the establishment of its parliament on March 19, 1877 (which was later dissolved by the Sultan on February 14, 1878 along with the Constitution) did not reverse its decline. When the 1900 came in, successors of the Ottoman Empire moved to save it from decline. It initiated the Young Turks movement in the various parts of the empire and had a tremendous impetus in 1905-08 when it successfully restored the Constitution of 1876. The Young Turks Revolution of July 1908 restored the Constitution of 1876. Election were also held for the new Parliament. Although this mechanism of democracy were instituted in the new Ottoman empire, it still failed because it does not have a root in the empire who were not used to democracy and is ignorant about democracy because the ruling class, including the Sultan opposed the idea that would limit their powers (White 18). During the break of the First World War, this same Young Turks broke neutrality and entered the war. It sided with Germany and with its defeat, Great Britain, France and with assent of Russia convened in May 9, 1916 for the dissolution of the old Ottoman Empire and made it to smaller state which we know now today as Turkey. II. The Japanese Empire The expansionist and colonialist policy of the western powers were at its height in the 18th century. Russia, which was also in conflict with the Ottoman Empire, also attempted to extend itself in the Pacific by encroaching in the island of Karafuto and Kuril islands which were in the northeren islands of Hokkaido. Althought the intent of the Russian was primarily trade, it was nevertheless unsuccessful. It was the Americans however under Commodore Perry in 1853 with his battleships that successfully forced Japan to open its ports for international trade that changed Japan’s political system and foreign policy (Najita 230). Prior to Commodore Perry’s arrival in 1853 and 1854, Japan fell into a crisis in the 1830s with harsh famines and natural disasters besetting Japan. This led to an uprising of the peasants against the Japanese government in 1837. The uprising may have been shortlived but this made an effect for the government to consider changes in its political system. The attempt to restore the state’s political system was to go back to the isolationist policy of Japan which is to restrict foreign contacts,be it in trade or literature (Rangaku). There were radical suggestions of overthrowing the Tokugawa reign (whcih eventually happened in the fall of the Tokugawa Empire) and adopt the doctrine of sonno-joi (revere the emperor, expel the barbarians), which is an isolationist policy of prohibiting any foreign intrusion. When Commodore James Biddle of the United States first arrived at Edo Bay in July of 1846, the Japanese was able to turn away the Americans and rejected American presence in the Asia-Pacific. The Americans however returned in 1853 under Commodore Perry in 1853 with his four squadrons of battleships that awed the Japanese realizing how backward they are with their self-imposed isolationist policy (Myers and Peattie 78). The threat brought by United States apparent military supremacy forced the Japanese to accept Commodore Perry’s demand to open itself to international trade. Thus, the Treaty of Peace and Amity (or Treaty of Kanagawa) was signed in March of 1854 which opened two ports that will provide supplies to American ships and a diplomatic relationship with the US albeit they were forced with a consul to reside in Shimoda, which is on the southwest of Edo on the Izu Peninsula. This was not however the end of American demands because the Americans demanded for opening of more ports years later. This resulted for the Shogun of Japan (Tokogawa) to lose popularity among its Daimyos considering that the country came from a 200 year self-imposed isolation. Attempts were made to restore its old political system by strengthening its military capability through the acquisition of modern military hardware from the Netherlands and setting up of western military schools. This initiative only however increased the number of the opposition to the Tokugawa regime’s opening to the west. Dissident factions within Tokugawa inner circle who opposed the regime’s “westernization” grew. Anti-foreign sentiments were fanned to return to the Mito school—as opposed to the present western military school, which was based more on neo-Confucian and Shinto principles that would establish a world empire under the divine Yamato Dynasty. The sentiment against the Shogunate grew when a new treaty was signed in 1859 with United States to open four more ports with unrestricted trade. Foreign residences with extra-territorial privileges in Osaka and Edo also increased where foreigners were not subjected to the Japanese law. Daimyos withdrew their support from the office of the Shogun in opposition to the new treaty and for the first time in centuries, Japan was embroiled in internal politics in an effort to revert to the old isolationist policy. The shogun eventually died without an heir but instead of installing the son, Tokugawa Yoshinobu of a leading Daimyo,Tokugawa Nariaki who opposed the treaties with the United States, other Daimyos however installed Tokugawa Yoshitomi and arrested Tokugawa Yoshinobu and Tokugawa Nariaki and executed the intellectual Yoshida Shoin who opposed the treaties with the Americans. This effort to reassert the power of the old shogun however did not stop the extremist to wage violence against the new shogun and foreigners. United States retaliated but and got another treaty in 1865. The new shogun Yoshitomi however was not able to enforce the treaty due to the growing dissension and which it was defeated in Satsuma and Choshu in its attempt to quell the opposition. The emperor died and his son Mutsuhito was installed but was reluctant to become a Shogun due to the growing power of the opposition in Satsuma and Choshu daimyos. Other daimyos who is anxious of the growing power in Satsuma and Choshu called for the power to be vested to the emperor and his council that will be headed by a former Tokugawa shogun. Tokugawa Yoshinobu accepted the proposal in 1867 but later resigned to call for an imperial restoration. The old oppositionists, Satsuma, Choshu and other leaders rebelled and seized the imperial palace on January 3, 1868 to put their own version of isolationist imperial restoration. The shogunate was dissolved and Tokugawa Yoshinobu was reduced to a common vassal (daimyo) that ended the Tokugawa regime. The installation of the new dynasty, Meiji, however took a different turn. Though it was called as the Meiji Restoration, it did not necessarily revert back to the old isolationist policy of Japan. It realized how backward its military was comparing to the United States and embarked on a different mode of restoration. Instead of going back to the 200 year old self imposed isolationist policy, it embarked on an effort to strengthen its own military to be able to defend against external threat while keeping its traditional eastern values. Works Cited Myers, Ramon H. and Peattie, Mark R. “The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895-1945”. Princeton University Press, United Kingdom. (1984). Najita, Tetsuo. Ordinary Economies in Japan: A Historical Perspective, 1750-1950 (Twentieth Century Japan: the Emergence of a World Power). University of California Press, 2009) Quataert, Donald. “The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1922”. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, New York. 2005 Rahme, Joseph G. “Namik Kemals constitutional Ottomanism and non‐Muslims”, Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations, 10.1(1999):23-39 White, Sam. “The Climate of Rebellion in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire”. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, New York, 2011 Read More