Brief Global History - Term Paper Example

ical Societies (500 BCE to 500 CE) Kellie Based primarily on Traditions and Encounters: a Brief Global History*, Part II: The Formation ical Societies, 500 B.C.E. to 500 C.E.* Introduction This is a survey and discussion of the formation and development of the world’s major classical societies in five regions of the world during the classical period 500 BCE to 500 CE that have shaped our history; their social, cultural, economic and political traditions, and the physical, cross-cultural, economic, ideological and other interactions and exchanges amongst them. Major events that took place during the classical period were the classical societies of Greece, the Greco-Persian, Peloponnesian and Corinthian wars, the conquests of Alexander the Great, the decline of the Persian Empire, the Roman Republic and the fall of the Roman empire, the rise of Christianity, the Mauryan and Gupta empires in the sub-continent, and the Qin and Han dynasties of China. What made the societies classical are the golden ages that existed because of the times of peace, great strides in development and progress, and ideas that have endured beyond their time. * Traditions and Encounters: a Brief Global History, Jerry Bentley, Herbert Ziegler and Heather Streets, McGraw-Hill publishing, New York, 2008. Classical Societies 1. The Persian Empire The classical period saw both the clash of the rising Persian Empire with the Greeks and Romans, and its weakening. At the start of the classical period, the Persian Empire formed earlier under Cyrus the Great was already at its greatest extent now under Darius I who led his conquering armies eastwards to the Indus river, central Asia, Egypt, Libya and some parts of Europe. At this time in history, the huge Persian Empire formed an important bridge between Eastern Europe and the sub-continent uniting a diversity of peoples. 1.1 The Greco-Persian Wars Throughout the classical period Persia had to contend with continuous wars with other civilizations in close proximity beginning with the Greeks in the Greco-Persian wars. In the battle of Marathon (490 BCE) a huge Persian army had gathered against the smaller number of Athenian forces but failed because the Greeks had trapped them to attack from the mountainside. A later attempt under Xerxes gave the Persians another opportunity at the battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE). This time the Spartans aided the Athenians, but the Persian army was overwhelming and they went on to capture Athens. In another battle of Salamis, a large Persian fleet was destroyed by the Greeks using similar trapping tactics as they had used at Marathon. This loss made Xerxes withdraw most of his forces from Greece, and the remaining Persian army was then defeated again at the battle of Plateau. This ended all Persian hopes of expansion into Europe. There were further wars with the Greeks when Alexander the Great became king. Alexander carried out his father’s plans of attacking Persia. His success in 330 BCE in defeating the Persian army and invading Persepolis greatly weakened the Persians. However, the Persian Empire itself continued with the Parthian (Arsacid), Sassanian and later dynasties. 1.2 Administration and Society King Darius divided his realm into 23 provinces. The administration was tightly governed with a network of educated bureaucrats. Each province was supervised by a governor. He also used secret agents as his eyes and ears to keep himself informed. There was freedom for people to practice their own local cultures and traditions and people were treated fairly in return for a tribute tax payable by each province to Persia. This also avoided the possibility of any revolts to the benefit of Persia. Many ancient trade routes were strengthened to make long distance trade easier, coinage was standardized, qanats were developed, irrigation systems of underground canals built to increase crops, and an effective postal system was set up. Accessible marketplaces and banks were also established. A famous university was established in Taxila in present day Pakistan. Persian culture was also influential during the later Parthian period (250 BCE to 226 CE) under the Arsacid rulers although there was political disunity at the time following the crushing defeat at the hands of Alexander the Great. Under the Sassanids, the Persian Empire became highly centralized and people were organized into a strict caste system of priests, soldiers, scribes, and commoners. 1.3 Zoroastrianism In the classical period, Zoroastrianism became closely associated with Persian culture. The concept of free will was an important contribution of Zoroaster, and the religion taught people to respect fire. It demanded high moral and ethical standards. Its influence spread to all parts of the empire. Under the Sassanids, Zoroastrianism became the official state religion and many fire temples were built. Zoroastrian philosophy also had a considerable influence on Greek and Roman philosophy and its light symbolism in particular has been used by other religions too. 1.4 Clashes with the Romans and Kushans Whilst the Greco-Roman wars put an end to Persian expansion northwards and Alexander the Great’s capture of Babylon had deeply split and demoralized the Persians, there was no end to warfare for them. During both the Parthian and Sassanid periods there were frequent clashes with the Roman Empire along the upper Euphrates river, their new major rival to the west, and also the Kushan Empire to the northeast. The Persian cataphracts, heavily armoured cavalry supported by mounted archers, were a match for the Roman legions, but the continual warfare drained the empire’s energy and resources. The Sassanid’s were more successful than the Parthians against the Kushans and to an extent against the Romans also, when they captured the Roman Emperor Valerian in 260 CE. 2. The Qin and Han Dynasties The period of the Qin and Han dynasties (221 BCE to 220 BCE) saw the unification and expansion of China. The first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang Di replaced the previous quasi-feudal Zhou Dynasty and marked the beginning of the long reigns of successive imperial Chinese emperors to build a powerful enduring empire. 2.1 Philosophical and Political Ideas of the Time Against the backdrop of the continual fighting in the Zhou period, the threat of barbarian invasions that always loomed, and the death and destruction seen everywhere, three major schools of thought emerged during the classical period amongst others. Lao-tzu promoted the Dao way of life, in which like the Buddha, people should stop wanting material wealth and live a simple life. Confucius likened the perfect state to a family. He said that just as children obey their parents who in turn love and care for their children, likewise, everyone should run their lives with peace and understanding in their dealings with the people above and below them. However, he did not suggest changing the feudal system of emperor-nobles-peasants. The Legalists identified the state as the most important thing in the world and relegated the significance of people to mere citizens of the state. They therefore advised strict laws and strong leadership so that people are force to obey through either punishment or reward. The thinking was that if the state runs smoothly, everyone would be happy because the leaders know precisely what is good and what people can or cannot do. 2.2 Administration and Society under the Qin Dynasty The feudal system was abolished. The state was highly centralized. Legal codes and bureaucratic procedures were standardized. Professionals educated in Confucian thought staffed the administration, and who practiced its values. Coinage was also standardized. Long distance trade, industrial development and technological advances enabled the economy to prosper. Expressways were standardized, as was the length of the wheel axle. Bridges and canals were built. The Chinese writing system was also standardized during the classical period on the seal script characters, as well as weights and measures. Some of these standardizations were such great changes that they lasted many centuries. 2.3 State and Self-Protection of the First Emperor The pattern of thought and scholarship also underwent standardization. The Legalist school of thought was adopted and all others were outlawed to prevent learning about the past and dissent. The emperor confiscated and banned many existing books especially of dissenting Confucian Chinese scholars, and either banished these scholars from the land or had them executed or buried alive in the ‘Valley of Confucian Killing’ so as to minimize any criticism of the imperial rule. In the same way, he also confiscated weapons from many people to prevent any likelihood of an uprising or resurgence of the feudal lords. The walls and other fortifications that separated the previous six states were demolished, although some strategic ones were connected together forming what is called the first Great Wall of China. A one-year conscription in the army was made compulsory for males between 16 and 60. To exhibit their military prowess, frequent expeditions were made to the frontiers of the empire to discourage any attempted barbarian intrusions. In particular, the nomadic ethnic Xiongnu had become a powerful invading force in the north and started expanding. So, the emperor sent a strong 300,000 army led by General Meng Tian to drive them further northwards. The Great Wall was placed here to guard against invasion. For his own self-protection in the afterlife, the famous and massive terracotta army of warriors, horses and chariots at Xi’an was built during the Qin dynasty presumably to guard him. 2.4 The Aftermath of the Death of the First Emperor Despite all the measures of protection mentioned above, the first emperor made the mistake of not arranging for a successor properly because he wanted to live forever. There was a period of sibling rivalry, turmoil and battles after his death. The youngest son Huhai had forged the Emperor’s will and created a faked decree in which his elder brother, the heir Fusu, was to commit suicide, and he himself was named as the next emperor. Huhai killed all his brothers and sisters to protect himself. However, Huhai the second emperor became no more than a puppet of his chief eunuch Zhao Gao, who even forced Huhai himself to commit suicide in the end, and so the power of the Qin Dynasty declined. Zhao Gao appointed Fusu’s son Ziying as the third emperor, but Ziying had Zhao Gao killed. In 206 BCE, according to some reports, General Xiang Yu the leader of insurgents then killed Ziying and burned down the Imperial Palace. Descendants of the nobles of the previous six warring states sprang up again, Xiongnu rebellions arose, and soldiers, peasants and prisoners revolted all over China. The Qin dynasty continued no more than three years longer after the first emperor’s death. Finally, the state of Han won, and the Han dynasty began in 207 BCE. This dynasty continued for over four centuries under a series of wise kings. However, the legalist rule that had been imposed by the Qin Dynasty left a deep impact on China, and the imperial system established was developed upon and endured over the next two millennia. 2.5 The Han Dynasty The Han Dynasty was ruled by the Liu clan and lasted over 400 years. It is regarded as the greatest period in Chinese history. The most prosperous and stable period was perhaps during the reign of Emperor Wu. The Han Dynasty’s cultural influence expanded greatly and its territory was extended too as far as the Caspian Sea in the west, due to its strong military and use of chemical warfare. The famous long Silk Road was established to export Chinese silk and trade flourished. The Qin administrative structure was largely retained but was less centralized. The Legalist methods were combined with Taoist philosophy at first until the time of Emperor Wu when it was combined with Confucian ideals. Taxation was reduced although it generated a large amount of revenue for the government and land was effectively privatized. Various structural developments took place and public projects initiated including a nationwide public school system under Emperor Ping. The arts and sciences flourished. Wang Chong was a successful philosopher and scientist of the time. Technological advances were also made including the invention of paper and Zhang Heng’s seismometer. Agriculture was also revived. To maintain peace with the Xiongnu, tributes were paid and intermarriages were arranged. Several Roman emissaries were received warmly and there were exchanges of gifts. There were also contacts with the Parthians and the Kushan Empire. The latter brought the Buddhist religion into China in the first century. 3. The Mauryan and Gupta Empires For many centuries during the classical period, the northern sub-continent was being continuously invaded from different peoples coming from eastern Europe and central Asia until the 4th century CE when the religious Aryans who had been living there for the past 2,000 years eventually re-established their hold to form the great Gupta empire described as the golden age of India. Firstly, an overview of the various invasions and brief rules by the non-Aryans preceding the Gupta empire. 3.1 Invasions of the Sub-Continent The expanding Persian Empire had stretched itself as far east as the river Indus under King Cyrus II and his son-in-law Darius. Then there was a brief adventure of the Macedonians led by Alexander the Great from 327 BCE after Alexander defeated Darius capturing the Persian empire and had set his sights on consolidating his rule over the Indian part of it. This ended when Chandragupta, who began the new Mauryan dynasty, drove them out in 305 BCE after Alexander’s death. It was only a century and a half later when the Mauryan empire collapsed after the death of the great emperor Asoka, that the Greeks, this time Bactrian Greeks, led by King Demetrius and his general Menander marching through the Hindu Kush recaptured parts of it. Later, before the turn of the millennium, the next waves of invaders swept into north-west India from central Asia, called the Scythians, the Parthians, and the Kushans. 3.2 The Mauryan Empire Chandragupta Maurya, a member of the powerful Magadhan royal family who had met Alexander in Taxila before his death had plotted with some of the rulers of the Punjab and succeeded in defeating the remaining Greek troops left behind from Alexander’s army. Then he defeated his own Magadhan armies thereby making himself the first emperor of the new Mauryan empire. However, he was on friendly terms with the Greek general Seleucus, He was also a fair ruler, although his empire is described as having been a police state because it was ruled by a huge army and large police force and there were law courts and savage punishments for whoever disobeyed the laws. He also employed spies and the state owned the whole land including the horses and elephants. Taxation was also said to be heavy. In return, highly trained officials who were responsible for everything from foreign affairs to street cleaning governed the empire. The new roads helped trade flourish, and likewise irrigation assisted farming. Schools and universities were also established. All these development made the Mauryan cities prosperous. One of the greatest rulers of the sub-continent, Asoka, was the third Mauryan emperor. It is said that following Asoka’s ruthless campaigns of war to expand his empire, there came a time when he reflected upon the great numbers of people who had been killed or made homeless. This grieved him to the extent that he decided it was enough and there should be no more war in his empire. This change in Asoka heralded a time of peace, prosperity and freedom throughout the empire. Asoka had been strongly influenced by Buddhist teachings and devoted the rest of his life to the welfare of his people. His attachment to Buddhism also helped the religion to thrive. Although this was a great time, it also led after his death to the break up and eventual collapse of the empire due to neglect of other essential governing duties. 3.3 The Gupta Empire In about 320 CE another Chandragupta, also an Aryan prince from Magadha, quickly reconquered the lands from the new invaders and established the great Gupta empire. He married a Nepalese princess and enlisted the support of her mother’s army of powerful warriors combined with his own leadership skills to achieve this. The Gupta empire is called the golden age of India because not only was this another time of great happiness and peace once again, the people made great lasting progress and achievements although family life remained based on the caste system. Taxes were low, people were free to travel, punishments were not harsh, there was freedom of religion, free health services were available to those who needed it, extensive road and irrigation schemes were built, corruption amongst officials and soldiers was very low due to regular wages, police protection was provided in every village to protect the people from raiders, and above all, there was advancement of knowledge. All forms of art and literature flourished, and this was an age where mathematics, astronomy and other sciences underwent significant developments such as the ‘solar-centric’ view, and the invention of zero and decimal numbers. This golden age ended in about 480 CE when very cruel groups of barbarians called the Huns swept into the Gupta cities from central Asia and destroyed the civilization. There was a short term revival of the old Gupta empire when 16 year old prince Harsha was made King but he left no heir and India quickly became deeply divided. It just could not recover from the devastation caused by the Huns. 3.4 Religion in the Sub-Continent The adoption of Buddhism by Asoka, which helped the religion to become widespread, has already been mentioned. Also, the Aryans had their own original beliefs, which later took the form of what we call Hinduism and which continues to be influential in India today. The religion involved belief in numerous Gods and reincarnation, and the society was based on the caste system. The religion of Jainism also developed in the Sub-Continent. These three religions had the common theme of salvation. 4. The Greek Civilization A number of wars between the different Greek city-states during the classical period saw the decline of Athenian authority ending their tyranny and leading to Spartan supremacy. The latter’s dominance remained until the brief establishment of Theban hegemony, later eclipsed by the rising power of Macedonia, especially under Philip II and Alexander the Great. 4.1 Life in Athens and Sparta Athens and Sparta were the two most important Greek cities at the start of the classical period. But although they shared the same Greek language, they were very unlike each other. Athens was described as a beautiful city of wonderful buildings. It had splendid temples, monuments and public squares in particular, besides schools, markets and theatres for example. Except for women, it was an open place where people engaged in discussions centred mainly on philosophy, politics, and current affairs. The Athenians also enjoyed the arts, literature, and the sciences, and Athens was a democracy. On the other hand, the Spartans, ruled by a dictatorship, were very harsh and their way of life was centred on training for warfare, having been accustomed to killing slaves for practice. 4.2 Greek Religion and Government The Greeks believed in a plethora of Gods residing on Mount Olympus and erected numerous temples all over their lands. As mentioned above, the system of government in Athens was a democracy. All free men were allowed to meet at the Assembly held forty times a year. An elected council of fifty men were responsible to ensure that the laws that had been decided were also carried out, and elected judges were responsible for carrying out the daily business of the city such as planning and tax collection. In contrast, the government of Sparta had two kings whose role was to lead their armies into battle, and a council of 28 old men and five elected judge-dictators. 4.3 The Cultural and Intellectual Legacy of the Greeks Like the Romans, the Greeks also had a deep cultural impact and left a profound legacy that forms the basis of western civilization. For example, the Greek style of architecture, the Olympic games, and the institution of theatres still strongly influence the world today. Many words have their origin in Greek and the alphabet itself is still used in certain contexts. The classical Greek societies produced a number of renowned scientists and thinkers, and the Greeks also excelled in Mathematics. For example, Pythagoras who discovered a law related to right angles we call Pythagoras’ theorem, the profound philosopher Aristotle who taught Alexander the Great and whose philosophical ideas greatly influenced many subsequent thinkers, Hippocrates known as the ‘Father of Medicine’, and Archimedes famous for the Archimedes screw for pumping water, devising the law of levers and Archimedes Principle for calculating the volume of irregular objects, his mathematical study of the sphere etc. The conquests of Alexander the Great in particular also helped to usher in what is known as the Hellenistic period of classical Greece (roughly 330 to 146 BCE) when Greek became the lingua franca of a large part of the world and Greek culture interacted with the cultures of Persians, Egyptians, Indians, and other Central Asian peoples. This was also characterized by major advances in and spread of Greek philosophy, notably Aristotelian, and the sciences, including astronomy, mathematics and geography. 4.4 Alexander the Great A discussion of war and conquest during the classical era would not be complete without mentioning Alexandar the Great. Taught by Aristotle, he was one of the most successful military commanders of all time. Whilst Alexander the Great’s father Philip II of Macedon expanded and consolidated his hold over other Greek cities, it was Alexander the Great becoming King at the age of 20 who greatly extended the Greek empire to cover the whole of Greece as well as conquering the Persian lands, including Egypt and went as far as the Punjab plains of India. He is particularly remembered for his defeat of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, which was his main ambition, and his battle against Raja Puru (Poras) and his herd of elephants. It was only the exhauster and reluctance of his army to venture further eastwards to face the mighty Maghadans that he turned backwards. His army comprised of many foreigners along the way too. He also attempted to incorporate elements of Persian culture and he encouraged his soldiers to intermarry as he himself also did, marrying Persian princesses. By the time of his death in Nebuchadrezzar’s palace in Babyon, he had conquered most of the known world. He also left an influence on the Romans who admired him and his exploits greatly and were keen on speaking Alexander’s Greek when discussing philosophy or an intellectual topic. 4.5 Decline and Destruction of the Greek Civilization Greek power in the Mediterranean declined considerably after their failed support of the Carthaginians against the Romans, and the subsequent wars with Rome. Initially, the Macedonians became Roman allies and helped Rome to defeat the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III twice around 190 BCE, which gained Rome a strong foothold in Greece. Then the Romans decided that Macedon also posed a threat, and so declared war on Macedon in 171 BCE bringing even more Roman troops into Greece, and three years later, crushed the Macedonians and split their city into four smaller states. Despite a later rebellion, and the last uprising by the Greek King Mithridates in 88 CE massacring thousands of Romans, ruin was inevitable. Eventually, during the course of the last century before the new millennium, the Greek civilization was utterly destroyed due to the series of wars with the Roman Republic. 5. The Roman Republic and Empire 5.1 Transition from Roman Republic to Roman Empire When the monarchy of ancient Rome was overthrown in 510 BCE, the Roman Republic began and with it the superpower status when they dominated the Mediterranean and wider global region for about half a millennium. After a series of minor conflicts, the Punic wars with the Carthaginians then brought North Africa under roman control and the Macedonian wars with the Greeks gave them control of the whole of the Mediterranean shores whilst ending the Greek civilization. Further expansion northwards into northern Europe and eastwards into parts of the Middle East greatly extended the empire. So, the Roman Empire had really been created by its powerful and disciplined army, which included its famous legions. But, when the frontiers were fixed, much fighting ended and the Pax Roman (Roman Peace) prevailed allowing for important development. 5.2 Roman Society The Romans built an extensive network of tough, straight and long roads throughout its empire to facilitate travel, trade and communications, bridges, canals, aqueducts to ensure adequate water supplies, schools, libraries, temples, public baths, market places, courts, theatres for entertainment, sewage systems, and even whole new towns. In short, there was a wide array of buildings, good provision of services and other infrastructure that helped the formation of classical roman societies and made them flourish. Although non-Romans were free to speak their own languages too, Latin was adopted almost everywhere. Roman ideas, habits and customs also spread everywhere. Rome itself was a class society. It was divided into patricians who held most of the top jobs, the wealthy knights, and the majority who were plebeians. These three classes were free, and besides these there were numerous slaves with few rights. Two elected magistrates called consuls in charge of the city and the empire, and whom a council of about 300 nobles called the Senate helped, as well as lesser magistrates ran the administration. 5.3 Religion in the Roman Empire Before the rise of Christianity, the Romans believed in the same host of gods as the Greeks but with different names, and some also practiced foreign religions. Although there was religious freedom, some emperors such as Nero persecuted religious minorities. Perhaps it irritated them that Christians were taught to obey God first and only after that to obey the emperor. However, it was after the conversion of emperor Constantine the Great that Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire. 5.4 The Fall of Mighty Rome Around the middle of the third century, the Roman Empire began to weaken. It is said that the people generally became lazy; the government more and more corrupt. There were lots of power struggles, frequent changes of emperors, rebellions leading to breaking away of outlying provinces, and above all, menacing barbarians, especially the Huns, Goths, Saxons and Vandals. Although Constantine the Great drove out many barbarians, after him, the empire divided into two Western and Eastern parts, but the breakup of the empire continued still further. It was the Goths who finally captured and burnt Rome in 410 CE. Read More