Milton and Marvell: Waging War with the Written Word - Dissertation Example

Milton and Marvell: Waging War with the Written Word ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Abstract 2. Introduction 3. Methodology a. Using Primary Source b. Using Secondary Source 4. Analysis a. Historical background (English Civil War) SOURCE: http://www.historyonthenet.com/Civil_War/timelinecivilwar.htm b. Fiction reflects Reality c. John Milton (THE AGE OF MILTON AND ITS INFLUENCE ON HIS LIFE AND WORKS.) Influence of the spirit of Renaissance Influence of the spirit of Puritanism Influence of the spirit of Political Conflicts HIS WORKS ANALYSED PARADISE LOST AREOPAGITICA EIKONOKLASTES THE TENURE OF KINGS AND MAGISTRATES OTHER PAMPHLETS d. Andrew Marvell Marvell’s political Career Political influences in his poetry HIS WORKS ANALYSED An Horatian Ode Upon Cromwels’ Return from Ireland The First Anniversary of the Government under O.C Upon Appleton house, to my Lord Fairfax On the Victory obtained by Blake over the Spainards…1657 His other works reflecting the age 5. Conclusion 6. Further Research 7. References. ABSTRACT Milton and Marvell: Waging War with the Written Word The purpose of this study is to examine in what ways the works of Andrew Marvell and John Milton produced in the 1630s-1660s reflect the material and intellectual conditions that created the English Civil war and the ways was this war waged in their literature. Data was collected from the primary sources and secondary sources. Primary sources used were history books and the works of Milton and Marvell, while secondary sources were the works of critics and scholars of history and literature. A thorough study of the history of England in between 16630—1660 was done. Secondary sources helped in procuring facts and collection of background material and as an interpretation itself that helped in the analysis. Analysis of the data found topics for further research and the conclusion. It was found that that contemporary age of any author is bound to influence his work. Milton and Marvell are no exceptions. Much of their work bear political colours of the age and The age was responsible for sharpening Milton’s intellectual capability. It was also concluded that both the writer’s work can be considered as important historical document, too. INTRODUCTION One of the simplest definitions of Literature would be the record of life itself, including humankind’s history, sociology, sciences, imagination in the form of poems, drama, novels, short stories and so on. Be it a nature lover like Wordsworth, appreciating a “Daffodil”, or a “Solitary Reaper” or the war poet like Rupert BROOKE and Sassoon or T.S Eliot recording the pangs of the lonely man in the modern era (Preludes for example), are bound to write about the things they see around them. For Wordsworth it was Nature, for Brooke it was the ghastly World Wars, for Eliot the modern man and for John Milton and Andrew Marvell it was the civil War torn England that made them use their weapon of pen and not the sword. In 1625, when Charles I ascended the English throne, it would have been difficult to foresee the troubled times to come. As the nation warmed into the English Civil War, there was a surprising lack of discussion about it in the available English literature. Yet, as the war progressed, an argument can be made that the fiercest battles were waged through the literature produced. This was as true for the ‘factual’ literature presented as well as in the fictional pieces produced by such writers as John Milton and Andrew Marvell. Milton’s pamphlets along with his greatest work and the first English epic Paradise Lost is direct result of the contemporary cultural and intellectual conditions of England. A poet is a thinking man who can creatively express his argument, his opinion and his foresight. Although a politician too takes part in the engaging politics of his time, but people like Milton and Marvell perfectly fit the bill of being involved in politics and being prestigious poets who could record the activities around using the best of language and creativity. The aftermath was that their work reflected much of the material and intellectual conditions that created the English Civil war. “Behind every book is a man; behind the man is the race; and behind the race are the natural and social environments whose influence is unconsciously reflected.”(Long, 2003).In these dissertation, we would trace the “book”, the” man” (Milton and Marvell) and finally the”natural and social environment” (1630- 1660 England) that influenced the “book” (works of Milton and Marvell). METHODOLOGY I would be delving deep into the works of Milton and the political poems of Marvell to prove how literature and contemporary history are inter related. Another important job would be to also have a clear picture of the history of the particular time, 1630-1660.Both Primary and Secondary sources would be used. Primary sources in this research are the history books that were read to have clear picture of the times and the works of Milton and Marvell. This was done to get the first hand knowledge of both the writer’s work and the social context that made them write so. WORKS STUDIED: MILTON’S WORK REFLECTING THE AGE Paradise Lost, Areopagitica Eikonoklastes, Defensio pro populo, Defensio Secunda and other pamphlets MARVELL’S WORK REFLECTING THE AGE An Horatian Ode Upon Cromwels’ Return from Ireland, Upon Appleton house, to my Lord Fairfax, A letter to Doctor Ingelo, then with my Lord Witlock, Ambassador from the Protector to the Queen of Sweden The First Anniversary of the Government under O.C On the Victory obtained by Blake over the Spainards…1657 A Letter To Doctor Ingelo, Then With My Lord Whitlock, Ambassador From The Protector To The Queen Of Sweden (Latin) Two Songs At The Marriage Of The Lord Fauconberg And The Lady Mary Cromwell, was written on the occasion of Cromwell’s daughter’s marriage. The Character Of Holland In Effigiem Oliveri Cromwell (Latin) The method was as following: Using Primary Sources The data was collected by finding the answers to the following questions A. Milton and Marvell’s work (which is the source) was placed in the contemporary cultural and social context. 1. Who wrote it? What do you know about the author? 2. Where and when was it written? 3. Why was it written? 4. To what audience is it addressed? What do you know about this audience? B. The source (Milton and Marvell’s work) was classified 1. What type of work it can be classifies as? 2. What was the purpose of the work? 3. What political, philosophical or religious traditions is it a part of? C. Understand the source. 1. What is the author’s point? 2. What assumptions are behind the argument? 3. What belief or value does the source reflect? 4. What problems are addressed by the source? How could the problems be related to the historical situation? D. Evaluating the literature as historical information. 1. How typical is this literature for1630-1660 England? 2. How wide was the literature’s circulation? 3. How similar is it to the works of the same period? Using Secondary Sources Secondary sources were the books written by critics of Milton, Marvell and the critics of history of England. These are basically, the opinion of the critics and their interpretation of the subject. I. Three ways to use a secondary source. A. for procuring facts B. Collection of background material. C. As an interpretation, itself. Critics of literature provide the readers with their own opinion and critical views and the critics of history provides us with their interpretation and suggestions. Historians too, give out their opinion in history books sometimes as the facts alone would not make an interesting History book. To make good history, the historian juxtaposes his view and the facts. The last step would be to interpret the sources. Interpretation would also be a part of the Analysis. ANALYSIS HISTORICAL BACKGROUND English Civil War 13th June 1625 King Charles Marries King Charles I married Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV of France at St Augustines Church, Canterbury, Kent. The marriage was not popular because she was a Catholic. May 1626 Parliament Dismissed Parliament was unhappy with the activities of Charles chief minister, George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham. Buckingham had led a failed mission to Cadiz and it appeared that he was planning to help the French to put down the Protestant Huguenot uprising. Parliament moved to have Buckingham dismissed from office. Charles retaliated by dismissing parliament. 13th March Parliament Recalled Charles needed money to finance the war with France and Spain and reluctantly recalled Parliament. 1628 Thirty-Nine Articles Charles re-issued the Thirty Nine Articles into the Church of England. This was seen as a move towards Rome and evidence of the Kings Catholic leanings. 7th June 1628 Petition of Right Parliament formed a committee of grievances and prepared a Petition of Right that was presented to the King. The Petition was designed to protect subjects from any further taxation unauthorised by Parliament. Charles signed the document reluctantly. 22nd August 1628 Buckingham Assassinated George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, was stabbed to death by naval lieutenant John Felton. March 1629 The Three Resolutions There were outbursts in Parliament when the Petition of Right was debated and the doors were locked to keep royal guards out. The Speaker, who wanted to adjourn the proceedings, was held in his chair. Parliament passed three resolutions: 1.That they would condemn any move to change religion. 2. That they would condemn any taxation levied without Parliaments authority. 3. That any merchant who paid illegal taxes betrayed the liberty of England. Charles dismissed Parliament.  March 1629 MPs Arrested Charles arrested nine members of the Commons for offences against the state. Three were imprisoned. This action by the King made him more unpopular. The King defended his action by stating his belief in his own divine right saying that Princes are not bound to give account of their actions, but to God alone. 1632 Thomas Wentworth Known as Black Tom Tyrant by the Irish, Thomas Wentworth, Lord Deputy of Ireland, ruled Ireland with a firm hand. However, his rule alienated the planters of Ulster and antagonised the landowners of Connaught. August 1633 Archbishop Laud Charles appointed William Laud as Archbishop of Canterbury. Laud was known to have Catholic leanings and Charles hoped that his appointment would help to stop the rise of the Puritans. 18 June 1633 King of Scotland Charles was crowned King of Scotland at Holyrood Abbey, Edinburgh. 1634 - 1636 Ship Money This tax was paid by coastal towns to pay for the upkeep of the Royal Navy. In a bid to raise more money, Charles now imposed the tax on inland towns as well.  June 1638 Ship Money John Hampden challenged the Kings right to impose such a tax but he lost the case and the court ruled that the King was the only authority that could impose such a tax.  February 1638 National Covenant and Book of Common Prayer  Charles demanded that the Book of Common Prayer be used in the Scottish Kirk. The Calvinist-dominated Scottish church resisted the move. There were riots and a National Covenant was formed which protested against any religious interference in Scotland by England. The Scottish Kirk was so incensed that it expelled the Bishops installed in Scotland by James I. 1639 Pacification of Berwick Thomas Wentworths had led a scratch army against the Scots but had been defeated on the border and had been forced to sign a temporary truce at Berwick. Wentworth told the King that in order to raise an efficient army he must recall Parliament. Charles, who had enjoyed his eleven years tyranny, was forced to recall Parliament. 13th April 1640 Short Parliament The new Parliament refused to authorise any new taxes until the King agreed to abandon ship money. The King said that he would only abandon ship money if Parliament would grant him enough money to re-open the war with Scotland. Parliament refused and was dismissed after three weeks. 1640 Oliver Cromwell Oliver Cromwell was elected to Parliament for the second time. He openly criticised Charles taxes and the level of corruption in the Church of England. Oct 1640 Scotland Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, set out for the Scottish border with a makeshift army. However, the army mutinied and the Scots seized English land. The Scots demanded a daily rate be paid until a satisfactory treaty was put in place.  21 Oct 1640 Treaty of Ripon This treaty between Scotland and England allowed the Scots to stay in Durham and Northumberland until a final settlement was concluded. Nov 1640 Long Parliament Charles had to have money to pay for an efficient army with which to defeat the Scots. However, he could not have the money until he agreed to Parliaments demands, which included an Act, which stated that parliament should meet once every five years and the arrest for treason of Strafford. Charles had no choice but to comply. 20 May 1641 Wentworth Beheaded Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, was executed on Tower Hill. Summer 1641 Triennial Act This act allowed Parliament to be summoned without royal command and declared ship money to be illegal. Late Summer 1641 Revolt in Ireland A revolt broke out in Ireland. Parliament critical of the Kings handling of matters in both Ireland and Scotland, passed propositions that the Parliament and not the King should be responsible for the countrys defence. 22 Oct 1641 Catholic Rebellion in Ireland A Catholic rebellion broke out in Ulster and quickly spread across the country. Many Protestant settlers were driven from their homes and the rebellion became war.  November 1641 Grand Remonstrance This document, put together by Pym, listed parliaments grievances against the King since his reign began. 4 Jan 1642 Charles Arrests five MPs Charles instructed his attorney-general to issue a charge of treason against one peer and five members of the Commons including Pym and Hampden. When Parliament refused to recognise the charge, Charles sent a troop of horsemen to make the arrests. However, Parliament had been warned and the five men had fled. this move by Charles was extremely unpopular and across the country, people declared themselves for Parliament and against Popery. Charles removed himself and his family from Whitehall to Hampton Court. Jan 1642 Preparations for War Charles sent his wife Henrietta Maria to the Continent to enlist Catholic support for his cause against Parliament. She was also to pawn the crown jewels to buy arms. Although both sides were now preparing for war, negotiations continued. March 1642 Militia Ordinance This allowed Parliament to take control of the Militia, virtually the only armed body in the country. April 1642 Charles - Hull Charles tried to secure an arsenal of equipment left in Hull from his Scottish campaign. He was blocked by Sir John Hotham, with parliamentary and naval support and was forced to retire to York. Charles made his headquarters in York. June 1642 Nineteen Propositions The Nineteen Propositions were issued by Parliament in the hopes of reaching a settlement with the King. They called for a new constitution recognising their own supremacy; demanded that ministers and judges should be appointed by parliament not by the King and that all Church and military matters should come under the control of Parliament.  22 Aug 1642 Civil War - Standard raised Charles raised his standard at Nottingham formally declaring war. However, both sides hoped that either war could be averted or that one decisive battle would put an end to the matter. 7 Sept 1642 Portsmouth falls to Parliament The vital port and fortress of Portsmouth surrendered to Parliament.  23 Oct 1642 Battle of Edgehill In the early afternoon, Charles sent his army down the hill to meet the Parliamentary army commanded by Essex. On the royalist right was Prince Rupert who broke Essexs left flank. In the centre, reinforcements arrived and they managed to push forward putting the lives of the Kings sons, Charles and James, in danger.  The battle was a stalemate with neither side able to advance.  12, 13 Nov 1642 Small Battles The Royalists led by Prince Rupert managed to surprise and capture Brentford. However, the following day Rupert was surprised to find his route to the city of London barred at Turnham Green by Essex and an army of some 24,000. The Royalist commander decided to retire rather than fight.  Jan 1643 Royalist Victories The Royalists had victories over Parliament at Braddock Down and Nantwich 1643 Skirmishes and Battles Parliament took Lichfield, Reading, Wakefield, Gainsborough,  Royalists took Ripple Field, Tewkesbury, Chewton Mendip, Chalgrove Field, Landsdowne Hill, Bristol and Yorkshire. Re-took Lichfield and Gainsborough, and held Cornwall, Newark and Devises 30 June 1643 Battle of Adwalton Moor the Royalist commander, William Cavendish decided to try to enclose the Parliamentarian army in Bradford. However, Fairfax, the Parliamentary commander decided that his army had a better chance of survival if they fought the Royalists in a battle rather than being surrounded and forced to surrender. The Royalists won the battle. 13 July 1643 Battle of Roundaway Down The Royalists were the first to charge but there was no counter-charge. After two more charges, the Parliamentary cavalry had fled. Waller then turned his attention to the Parliamentary infantry who stood firm until a force led by Hopton attacked them from behind. Caught between two Royalist armies the majority of Parliamentarian soldiers simply fled from the battlefield giving the Royalists victory.   Aug 1643 Solemn League and Covenant This document swore to preserve the Church of Scotland and reform the religion of England and Ireland according to the word of God and the example of the best reformed churches and to protect the rights and liberties of parliaments. It was accepted by the English Parliament in September. 20 Sept 1643 First Battle of Newbury Essexs force of tired wet and hungry Parliamentarians intended to rest at Newbury, a town sympathetic to the Parliamentarians. However, Rupert had arrived there first and Essex had no choice but to fight. Essex moved the Parliamentarians before daybreak and secured the Round Hill, just south of Newbury. The surrounding countryside was criss-crossed with lanes and hedgerows, which offered excellent cover for the foot soldiers but was quite unsuitable for horse. Parliament won the battle June 1644 Battle of Marston Moor This was the largest single battle of the Civil War involving 45,000 men. Although the Royalists were outnumbered, they decided to fight. They were defeated by Parliament. For the first time since the Civil War had begun Ruperts cavalry were beaten by a Parliamentarian cavalry charge. 27 October 1644 Second Battle of Newbury The Royalists were sandwiched between two Parliamentary forces. Each time Parliament made some gain they were beaten back by the Royalists. The battle, which lasted all day, ended in a draw. 14th June 1645 Battle of Naseby The Parliamentarians broke their siege on Oxford and forced the Royalists into battle. Initially the Royalists took up a defensive stance but later the order to attack was given. The battle lasted just three hours and saw the death of most of the Royalist foot soldiers. It was a decisive victory for Parliament. Charles fled the battlefield as soon as it was apparent that he had lost both the battle and the war. 6th May 1646 Surrender to the Scots Charles I surrendered to the Scots 24th June 1646 Surrender Oxford, Charles Is capital surrendered to Parliament 30th January 1647 Charles I Imprisoned The Scots handed Charles over to parliament. He was imprisoned in Holdenby House, Northamptonshire November 1647 Putney Debates This was a series of debates held by different Parliamentarian forces to try to decide on a new constitution. November 1647 Charles Escaped Charles I escaped imprisonment and fled to Carisbrooke Castle, Isle of Wight December 1648 Charles Recaptured Charles was recaptured and sent to Windsor Castle 6th January 1649 Rump Parliament The Rump Parliament began. All members of Parliament who were in favour of negotiating with the King had been expelled. The Rump Parliament gave parliament the right to make new Acts of Parliament without the kings approval 20th January 1649 Trial of King Charles began King Charles was tried for treason by a High Court of Justice specially set up for the trial. The court found Charles guilty and sentenced him to death. 30 Jan 1649 Execution King Charles I was executed by beheading, outside Whitehall Palace, London. He was buried in St Georges Chapel, Windsor. SOURCE: http://www.historyonthenet.com/Civil_War/timelinecivilwar.htm FICTION REFLECTS REALITY To understand the social dynamics that fed the English Civil War, it is necessary, then, take a look at the literature produced during the period that may or may not have directly addressed the issues that were building without actually placing the blame at the feet of the king or Parliament. Literature of all kinds often provides a useful tool for the study and understanding of complicated concepts in a variety of fields. In addition to helping bring concerns to the surface, literature, particularly fiction, examines multiple aspects of a given phenomenon from a ‘lived’ perspective – that is, the characters must experience the event as it occurs, the action must be believable and the results must follow logically. Fiction is often mistaken as being synonymous with fantasy, something that cannot be, will not be, and has not been true. In some respects, the assessment that fiction is frivolous is true as the very definition of fiction indicates it is “an imaginative creation or a pretense that does not represent actuality but has been invented” or “a literary work whose content is produced by the imagination and is not necessarily based on fact” (“Fiction”, 2000). However, fiction can often illustrate truths better than fact and to a much greater degree. There is often much more under the surface than many would readily conceive. Social theorists and academics have often turned to literature as a means of examining the affects of events that lead up to various social occurrences throughout history, such as the disaster that affected the English countries in the middle of the 17th century. As these concepts are difficult to define or explain, literature provides examples and analogies that bridge gaps in understanding as well as pose new questions to be answered. It also helps us to understand how these ideas were being formed and reinforced within the society in which these texts were written. Thus, examination of the texts of two primary writers employed during this period of history can prove illuminating regarding the intellectual conditions of England leading into and through the war years. MILTON THE AGE OF MILTON AND ITS INFLUENCE ON HIS LIFE AND WORKS. John Milton was born to John and Sara Milton in London on December 9, 1608. He grew up near St. Paul’s Cathedral, where he attended church, and his father was a music composer. His father was a scrivener, dealing with various transactions. Milton attended St. Paul’s School when he was 12 and Christ’s College, Cambridge five years later. He experienced many personal struggles throughout his live including losing his sight in 1952. He also lost good friends, two wives, and two of his children. His personal struggles as well as his experiences during the civil war are reflected in his wonderful literature. Milton undoubtedly is the greatest figure of the seventeenth century English Literature. Milton’s poetry bears the spirit of the age in which he lived. When considered whether it was unfortunate or fortunate that a genius like Milton was thrown upon an age of civil wars and clashing principles, the answer would be both. While he wrote pamphlets with great impact, his Paradise lost and Paradise Regained where delayed due to his engagement with politics. Again it can be said that those very events that delayed his epics, made him the matured Milton who could handle a Paradise Lost so skillfully. His imagination and intelligence were influenced by conflicting principles in religion, in politics and social life. The three major spirit of the age that influenced his work are: 1. INFLUENCE OF THE SPIRIT OF RENAISSANCE: Renaissance and the Reformation were the two major influences in Milton’s life. The Renaissance (re- birth) is the revival of ancient classical learning (Greek and Latin) that took place in Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. To a great extent, Renaissance paved the way for Reformation of Europe as people developed a rational outlook towards everything including religion. People started questioning age old religious beliefs and practices connected with the Roman Catholic Church. Renaissance ignited that spirit of enquiry and rational analysis, which ultimately led to the breach with Roman Catholicism and to the establishment of Protestantism. Milton’s work is clearly studded with classical learning of the Renaissance, the frequent references to Greek and Latin ideas, ideals, Love of Art and the love of the sublime is proof enough of the Renaissance influence. 2. INFLUENCE OF THE SPIRIT OF PURITANISM By a cross development of ideas of the Renaissance, developed another idea that was hostile to the influence of the Renaissance, namely Puritanism. The Puritans stood for an austere, God-fearing and high principled kind of life. They believed in the supremacy of Christ alone, without any mortal intermediaries. Puritans also stood for a revolting spirit that revolted against the Church government and also against established authority in political matters. Milton’s revolt of Satan is in a way the revolt of a Puritan against the established authority. 3. INFLUENCE OF THE AGE OF POLTICAL CONFLICTS There exist two schools of thought about the influence of the political conflicts on Milton, firstly, that much of his creativity was lost while taking part in the controversy and another being that the political unrest actually enriched his intellectual outlook and poetical genius. Whatever the truth is, one thing is certain that Milton was immensely influenced by the material and intellectual events around him. PARADISE LOST (written in between 1658-1665) The work is an epic and when read individually without any knowledge of the age or author, one can hardly find any personal touch of the poet. In that case, it would be a weaving of an elegant story depicting the Biblical story of the fall from Eden and the nature of hell .But, we as students of English Literature, equipped with Milton’s nature and his era, can very well identify the autobiographical elements in Paradise Lost. In fact, Coleridge opines, “John Milton is in every line of Paradise Lost”, and along with Milton, the material and the intellectual conditions of the age is also reflected. MAJOR REFLECTIONS OF THE AGE IN Paradise Lost 1. Milton, the champion of Popular liberty, is portrayed in the character of Satan. Through Satan, Milton has expressed his own pride, defiance of authority invincible temper, heroic energy, and love of liberty that he stood for. 2. Milton’s self is in Adam, too. The earlier Milton was the sensuous Adam enjoying the beauty and the love of Eve, and later the pious and God fearing Adam 3. Adam in Paradise Lost, caught in between the war of God and Satan bears similarity with the common man of England caught in the war between the contenders of English civil war. 4. Milton’s symbolism is revealed when he aligns the prevailing political parties to the infernal crew. The debate, which takes place in Hell, is similar to the Parliamentary debate of England. He saw God as the King of England. 5. .Milton’s Puritanical values are reflected when he detests the violence, cruelty and noise of Moloch, the lust of Chemos, vice which is personified by Belial, his personal hatred for wealth is seen in the attack of Mammon (love of gold).Milton’s detestation of idolatry is inspired greatly by his Protestantism and rejection of what he considered to be the corruption of the Roman Catholic Church. DETAILED REFLECTIONS OF THE AGE 1. When the hosts of hell gather to discuss what they will do to fight again against God, Belial stands to council patience, if not contrition, “which if we can sustain and bear, / Our Supream Foe in time may much remit / His anger, and perhaps thus farr removd / Not mind us not offending, satisfid / With what is punisht; whence these raging fires / Will slackn, if his breath stir not thir flames” (Book 2), demonstrating even in this speech the benevolent nature of God. In this passage, Belial expresses the hope that if the demons condemned to hell only submit to their fate rather than fight against it or God further, perhaps God will relent or at the least not punish them further. This is reflective of the English hope that their king, once chastised in his military and political defeats, would simply relent and begin working with the Parliament rather than against it as well as the knowledge that this is a false hope. 2. Expression of might and power can be seen when Jesus enters the battle against Satan in the angel’s story: “At his command the uprooted Hills retird / Each to his place, they heard his voice and went Obsequious, Heavn his wonted face renewd, / And with fresh Flourets Hill and Valley smild” (Book 6) in much the same fashion that Cromwell emerged as a brilliant leader and military commander 3. “The mind is its own place, and in it self / Can make a Heavn of Hell, a Hell of Heavn. / What matter where, if I be still the same, / And what I should be, all but less then hee / Whom Thunder hath made greater? “. Similarly, King Charles, by extension, had a choice to make as well, whether he wished to rule a kingdom of free peoples or instead intended to rule as a dictator of all thoughts and expressions. In making his bid for the latter, he similarly brought about his own damnation. HIS PAMPHLETS Milton was an enthusiast and a committed activist. In 1638, when he was in Southern Italy; he received the news of the Scots rebelling against Charles I, and he immediately headed for England. He considered it “base to be traveling for amusement abroad while my fellow citizens were fighting for liberty at home”. Later, in England he made his mind “ I saw that a way was opening for the establishment of real liberty; that the foundation was laying for the deliverance of man from the yoke pf slavery and superstition: that the principles of religion, which were the first objects of our care, would exert a salutary influence on the manners and constitution of the republic; and as I had from my youth studied the distinctions between religious and civil rights, I perceived that if I ever wished to be use , I ought at least not to be wanting to my country, to the church and to so many of my fellow-Christians in a crisis of so much danger. I therefore determined to relinquish the other pursuits in which I was engaged and to transfer the whole force of my talents and my industry to this one important object” He then invested all his creative energy into pamphleteering. Pamphlets he wrote are; 1. The antiprelatical pamphlets (1641-42): Church Discipline, Prelactic Episcopacy. Animadversions, The Reason of Church Government, and Apology for Smectymuus 2. .The divorce pamphlets (1643-45): Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce, The judgement of Martin Bucer. 3. The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates(1649) 4. Eikonoklastes (1649) 5. Of Education, 6. Areopagitica (1644) 7. Defensio pro populo (1651) 8. Defensio Secunda (1654) 9. Defensio pro se (1655) 10. The Ready and Easy Way to Establish a Free Commonwealth (1660) AREOPAGITICA (1644) Milton’s sympathy with the Parliament is evident not only in his Protestant upbringing, but also in his continuing appeals for freedom of expression and belief, which were frequently in direct opposition to the King’s position that the king’s way was the only right way. However, this sympathy did not necessarily indicate a complete capitulation to everything that the Parliament advocated. In response to attempts by Parliament to censor his material, Milton wrote Areopagitica which was a plea to the Magistrates to repeal censorship laws in the name of liberty. REFLECTIONS OF THE AGE The spirit of Liberty is what is highlighted among other causes that Milton championed. THE ARGUMENT OF AREOPAGITICA At the core of every argument in Areopagitica is the concept that true spiritual growth – as a nation, as an individual and as a system of beliefs – can only be gained by this practice. Any attempt to limit, restrict or define exactly what knowledge is gained or rejected, therefore, is a violation of liberties on a grand scale. Milton argues the Magistrates must take into consideration the character of the men who imposed the first censoring restrictions, the consequences of reading in general on the populace, the inability of any laws to prevent the types of thought they were attempting to limit and that such laws will only serve to discourage learning of any kind within the realm, having a tremendous impact on the civil and religious development of the citizenry. He writes in "Def 2" that there are “three species of liberty which are essential to the happiness of social life – religious, domestic, and civil”, all three of which can be found in the arguments within Areopagitica. SUPPORT OF HIS ARGUMENT IN Areopagitica He uses as support for his argument the idea that even God himself opted not to have automatons serving him on earth, but instead imbued mankind with the ability to think, and choose, for himself. Pointing to human reactions as proof, Milton said no one respects, loves or honors things that give love, obedience or devotion merely because of force or fear of the consequences EIKONOKLASTES (THE IMAGE BREAKER), 1649 Through Eikonoklastes, he counter attacks Eikon Basilike: the Portraiture of His Sacred Majesty in his Solitudes and Sufferings. This book’s title translates as "the Kings image", was actually fabricated by Bishop Gauden but was thought to be written by Charles I, himself. Eikon Basilike’s was to provoke an outpouring of sympathy for the executed Charles I through a record of his prayers and thoughts of his last years. Milton’s aim of writing Eikonoklastes was to destroy the image of a martyr that was created by Bishop Gauden and to change the image of a hypocritical tyrant. MILTON’S ATTACKS ON CHARLES I 1. The major thrust of this chapter is the accusation that Charles (or Gauden) stole a prayer from Sydney’s Arcadia and tried to pass it of as the king’s own prayer. "But this king . . . to attribute to his own making other men’s whole prayers, hath as it were unhallowed and unchristened the very duty of prayer itself borrowing to a Christian use prayers offered to a heathen god . . . a prayer stolen word for word from the mouth of a heathen fiction praying to a heathen God; and that in no serious book, but the vain amateurish poem of Sir Philip Sidney’s Arcadia." 2. "Kings in receiving justice and undergoing due trial are not different from the meanest subject." 3. Milton claims that law is to be universally applied, regardless of rank: "all laws, both of God and man, are made without exemption of any person whomsoever; and that if kings presume to overtop the law by which they reign for the public good, they are by law to be reduced into order REFLECTION OF THE AGE Milton’s rejection of the King as the godly head on earth, his anti establishment and Puritanical beliefs The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates It again reflects the rejection of Kingship as the Godhead. He wrote” that it is lawful, and hath been held so through all ages, for any who have the power, to call to account a tyrant, or wicked king, and after due conviction, to depose, and put him to death, if the ordinary magistrates have neglected or denied to do it. And that they who of late so much blame deposing, are the men that did it themselves”. Milton was going behind Tudor theories of absolutism to a liberal political tradition and the Stuart theories of divine right. After this pamphlet, he was distinctly identified as one of that group which wanted the execution of Charles I and the setting up of Commonwealth. OTHER PAMPHLETS AT A GLANCE Defensio pro populo is again a reply to Salmasius. He not only put forth historical, legal and moral arguments but also attacked Salmasius’ character. Also hurled personal abuse at Alexander More whom he mistakably considered to be the author of Regii Sanguinis Clamor. In the Regii Sanguinis Clamor he was personally abused. Defensio pro populo reflected a note of patriotism ANDREW MARVELL (1621-78) Andrew Marvell was born to Rev. Andrew Marvell and Anne Marvell on March 31, 1621 in Holderness, Yorkshire. When he was three his family moved to Hull where his father lectured at the local Holy Trinity Church. Marvell was thirteen years younger to Milton and befriended him as well as working under him. He was engaged in various religious and political attachments, while in Cambridge as a student. Although classified as a Metaphysical Poet, his most popular poem remains An Horatian Ode Upon Cromwell’s’ Return from Ireland, which is a one of his political poems. .He spent almost four years in traveling across Europe and was not present in England when the English Civil War erupted in 1642. It is suspected by scholars that until this time, Marvell supported the Royalists and turned to an “unofficial laureate for Cromwell”. Until he wrote "An Horatian Ode" in 1650, there was no proof of his allegiance to the Puritans. Since then, Marvell got involved in Parliamentary causes and politics. He tutored the daughter of Sir Thomas Fairfax, who was the former commander-in-chief of the Parliamentarian forces. Later, Marvell also tutored Cromwells charge William Dutton. MARVELL’S POLITICAL CAREER Marvell’s friendship with John Milton earned him the designation of Assistant Latin Secretary, while Milton was the Latin Secretary himself. He took a seat in Parliament of Hull, as a representative, in 1659. He invested his talent and energy into his political career and served the Parliament until death. Although it is accepted that Marvell died of an accidental medicine overdose, rumors exist that his death was due to poisoning by his political enemies. (Milton employed Marvell to convey a publication to the Lord President of the Council in 1654. In 1657 Marvell was appointed to serve with Milton in the Secretaryship of Foreign Tongues, a position he held until the restoration of the monarchy with the accession of Charles II. He was in effect working for Secretary of State John Thurloe, who was responsible for the Commonwealth secret service. In this period of his life he wrote a considerable number of political poems, many of them expressing his admiration and even affection for the Lord Protector.) POLITICAL INFLUENCES IN HIS POETRY Critics have attempted to find out a political philosophy within Marvells poetry, and to correlate his poems with his political career. It is quite a tough job as Marvell was equivocal on many occasions; he also adopted different speaking postures. Warren Chernaik finds 1. a libertarian attitude towards freedom in many of his poems. 2. Marvell befriended some republican thinkers of his time, and it is obvious that he held some views about the republican government. 3. Once when bribed with a considerable amount of money and a position in court, he answered that he lived to serve his constituents. 4. His love for Cromwell was evident in his poems. 5. Anti- prelatic note found in his work An Horatian Ode Upon Cromwels’ Return from Ireland The poem is believed by some, to be the best political poem ever written in English. Marvell in this poem is impressed by Cromwel’s (the Lord Protector) subduing of Irish rebels. He also expresses sympathy for the courage and dignity of the royal victim Charles I, who "nothing common did or mean / Upon that memorable scene, / But with his keener eye / The axes edge did try." Thus the monarch "bowd his comely Head, / Down as upon a bed" when an execution was arranged so that "the Royal Actor born / The Tragick Scaffold might adorn: / While round the armed Bands / Did clap their bloody hands." OCCASION OF THE POEM "An Horatian Ode upon Cromwells Return from Ireland,"- The very title of the poem suggests that the poem deals with historical figures and is a commentary on a historical occasion. warns us that this poem deals with historical figures and comments on a historical occasion. The poem welcomes back Cromwell in England from his victorious subjugation of Ireland and looks forward to his next campaign against the Scots. The poem was probably written in the summer of 1650, as it was May 1650 when Cromwell returned from Ireland and July22 of the same year, he entered Scotland. HISTORY OF THE POEM Finally, a determined group of men in the Parliament, led by Cromwell, tried Charles for treason, condemned, and executed him on the scaffold on January 30, 1649. Cromwell crushed Ireland, in the next year and, as Marvell recorded in the poem broke the Scottish Royalist forces. Cromwell ruled England as Lord Protector until 1658, when he died. . POLITICAL ASPECT OF THE POEM "An Horatian Ode" created the most controversy among other political poems of Marvell. Many critics argue that Marvell’s tone is contradictory in the poem. R. H. Syfret opines that the contradictory tone is the reflection of the uncertainty of the contemporary age. The First Anniversary of the Government under O.C . Marvell manages to equivocate and not takes sides even in An Horatian Ode upon Cromwells Return from Ireland, "It is neither over-critical of Charles nor completely admiring of Cromwell. In fact, some critics even argue that Cromwell has been portrayed as a necessary evil in the” Ode”. It is only in the later poems like “The First Anniversary of the Government under O.C”, where the praises showered on Cromwell is direct and noteworthy. This poem is a tribute to Oliver Cromwell’s successful completion of one year as the Lord Protector. He writes, “Cromwell alone doth with new Lustre spring, And shines the Jewel of the yearly Ring Tis he the force of scatterd Time contracts, And in one Year the Work of Ages acts:” Although his praises for Cromwell are louder in this poem, he still maintains a safe position of not condemning Charles I. Unlike Milton, he clever enough to not attack anyone directly and hence remained safe during Restoration. Upon Appleton house, to my Lord Fairfax STORY The story revolves around Isabel Thwaites. She was imprisoned at Nun Appleton in Yorkshire by a Prioress, who was her guardian. Isabel’s admirer William pressed his suit in vain, as the Prioress persuaded Isabel to join her order. At last, William turned to law which he found to be in his favour: the Prioress was compelled to let go her. Their wedding was full of rejoice. Few years later, when Catholicism was forbidden by the King, the nuns were ordered to evacuate their convents. Nun Appleton House was surrendered to the sons of William and Isabel. Later, their great grandson, Thomas, Lord Fairfax, built the old house anew. Fairfax was the supreme commander in Cromwell’s army. The credit of defeating the king at Naseby goes to him, but he refused to march against the Scots after Charles was executed. He said, What my conscience yields unto as just and lawful I shall follow. My conscience is not satisfied and therefore I must desire to be excused’. He was a Scottish peer, after all. Then, he retired to his Yorkshire home into a private life. The poem meditates on a number of themes while telling the actual story and it also describes the Appleton Estate. HISTORY OF THE POEM Andrew Marvell was appointed a tutor to Mary Fairfax (who was twelve years old), daughter of General Lord Fairfax, victor of the First Civil War. Fairfax married Anne Vere, daughter of Sir Horace Vere. The poem is believed to be written between November, 1650 and the end of 1652. So, it was written two and four years after January 1649, when King Charles I was executed. The poem is about the new house First Lord Fairfax built in 1637-1638, called Appleton, or Nun Appleton House (the name was so given because the Fairfax family received the land from a Dissolved Cistercian Nunnery). The third Lord Fairfax completed the house not before 1650, when he retired. Marvell remained a tutor to the General’s Daughter from 1651 to 1653. POLITICAL ASPECT OF THE POEM "Upon Appleton House,” is considered one of Marvell’s political poems, in spite of the Garden imagery and an idyllic and tranquil retreat. This is because of the praises that he showers on his benefactor Fairfax’s retirement. There is much debate on whether the praises were genuine or not, as the rest of the poem seems to be endorsing movement and action. The poem focuses on Mary and concludes with an affectionate paean to her talents. On the Victory obtained by Blake over the Spainards…1657 HISTORICAL ASPECT OF THE POEM Robert Blake’s last voyage was his last and greatest victory in 1657. Blake was asked to lead a new expedition against the Spaniards. As his health was deteriorating, Edward Mountagu was chosen by Cromwell to assist him. Blake’s fleet sailed in 1656. However, it was only in April1657 that he launched an attack. It was then when he was certain that the Spanish ships carrying treasures were anchored at Santa Cruz de Tenerife in the Canary Islands .He was also certain that neither the Dutch squadron under de Ruyter or Spanish battle fleet in Cadiz would come to their aid. The result was a glorious victory by Blake over the Spainards. POLITICAL ASPECT OF THE POEM He clearly highlights and praises Blake, and indirectly he again praises Cromwell. All the Foes Ships destroyd, by Sea or fire, Victorious Blake, does from the Bay retire, His Siege of Spain he then again pursues, And there first brings of his success the news; A letter to Doctor Ingelo, then with my Lord Witlock, Ambassador from the Protector to the Queen of Sweden MARVELL’S OTHER WORK REFLECTING THE AGE Marvell used both satirical verses and poems to express political opinions during the reign of Charles II. Although he admired Cromwell and the Commonwealth, he exhibited sympathy towards the royal family and accepted the Restoration. 1. In poems like The Last Instructions to a Painter,” he castigated the mismanagement of political events as when the Dutch fleet sailed up the Thames in 1667. 2. In 1674, Marvell’s "Britannia and Raleigh”, depicts Raleigh pleading that the tyrant cannot be separated from the Stuart; he also pleads to reform the state on the Venetian Republican model. These satires were probably secretly printed, as they were only included after the Glorious Revolution in a larger collection of poetry (Poems on Affairs of State, 3 Parts, 1689; 4 Parts, 1703-07). 3. Marvell also expressed disillusionment about Charles II in Poem on the Statue in the Stocks Market”. as too often sold and purchased9although Marvell preferred Charles II to his brother). 4. In Grosarts edition of Complete Works, Marvell’s political prose is much wittier than his poems and use good use of irony. 5. Two Songs At The Marriage Of The Lord Fauconberg And The Lady Mary Cromwell was written on Cromwell’s daughter’s marriage. 6. The Character Of Holland 7. In Effigiem Oliveri Cromwell (Latin) 8. A Letter To Doctor Ingelo, Then With My Lord Whitlock, Ambassador From The Protector To The Queen Of Sweden (Latin) CONCLUSION The relationship of poetry to history is much confused but it is a very important one. Poems arise out of history, either events of the age or beliefs of the age. In fact, each work of an author bears the flavour of the age in which the author dwells. It is the same with the works of Marvell and Milton’s work. After much speculation, it was seen that all their work are born out of the political and social events of 16630-1660 England. Much of Marvell’s works are all based on his political engagements and interest. A lot of his poems would not have been written at all without the political involvement. Even Milton’s Paradise Lost, which is supposed to be an epic is not free of the influence of the age. Milton and Marvell were not ordinary men who could not be bothered about events occurring around them . Marvell was more diplomatic in not making direct comments that may classify him as a supporter of any group, while Milton was more direct, straightforward when he attacked his opponents. Nonetheless, they waged the war with the pen. Their fertile mind compelled them to take part actively and use their creative talent to express their social concerns. It is not for nothing that History of Literature is such an important and significant area of study. Any student of Pure Literature cannot study literature individually without knowing the material and intellectual influences of the age on the work concerned. It is not possible to deny importance of historical context while studying any work of Art. Be it literature, Music, Painting or any other art, the influences of the age will be reflected on them. Some works also bear importance as a historical document, as they provide the reader with lot of information about the age. This particularly holds true for Marvell’s political poems and Milton’s Pamphlets. This is not fit for Paradise Lost ,as the reader without any knowledge about Milton’s era would not be able to identify the historical connections. For him, it would just be the Biblical story .Only when one knows the age can he identify the influences of the contemporary time. FURTHER RESEARCH While writing this dissertation, some related issues were found to be significant enough as further research topics. They are as follows Comparing pure history and historical literature by poets as historical material. The importance of studying history of the age (in which the author was writing) while studying literature. 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Representing Revolution in Milton and His Contemporaries: Religion, Politics, and Polemics in Radical Puritanism .Cambridge University Press, 2001 Rogers, J. The Matter of Revolution: Science, Poetry, and Politics in the Age of Milton Cornell University Press, 1996 Read More