How Mussolini Survived the Matteotti Crisis - Essay Example

How Mussolini Survived the Matteotti Crisis Introduction Benito Mussolini, also known as 'Il Duce' or The Leader, is best known as ther dictator of Italy. Mussolini managed to work his way from being a bricklayer in Switzerland to the leader of the Italians for more than 20 years through the clever use of his personality and charisma, and his driving ambition in the midst of much political turmoil and subsequent fall at the behest of his own party is interesting study in itself. However, this essay will focus on what is referred to as the Matteotti Crisis and the means by which Mussolini was able to transcend it and become the Italian dictator from 1922 to 1945. Background Benito Mussolini was born Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini on July 29, 1883 in northeast Italy in a town called Varnano dei Costa near Predappio to blacksmith Alessandro Mussolini and schoolteacher Rosa Maltoni. He was executed on April 28, 1945 in Milan, Italy when economic depression and military failures in World War II led to his ousting and subsequent persecution. (Benito Mussolini, 2003; Benito Mussolini, 2007; Benito Mussolini) Mussolini began his political career when he became editor to Milan socialist paper "Avanti!" in 1911. A gifted orator and writer, Mussolini was brought to the notice of the socialist movement when he was arrested and imprisoned for leading demonstrators protesting the attack by the Italians on Libya. Under socialist concepts, war was merely a way for the rich to get richer at the expense of the common worker. Under his editorship, the newspaper gained popularity. (Benito Mussolini, 2007) Five months into World War I, however, Mussolini had a change of attitude, regarding war as an opportunity, and for this the socialist party expelled him. In August 1915, Mussolini answered his country's call to arms. In 1917, a mortar bomb signalled his discharge from the army with the rank of corporal. (Benito Mussolini, 2007) Mussolini developed a political ideology to tie in support of his group, later to be known as Fascism because he named the group Fasci di Combattimento or League for Combat. He was not the first to use the word fasci but his party was the most identified with it. (Rise of Mussolini: to 1922, 2006) World War I threw Italy into an economic crisis and the country was in turmoil. In response, Mussolini formed the National Fascist Party in 1919 and people looked to him to bring order into chaos. He formed the Black Shirt militia, officially the squadre d'azione but popularly described as armed thugs that used violence against all who opposed the Fascist party with special preference for socialist, communists and democrats, and little opposition from authorities. (Rise of Mussolini: to 1922, 2006) In 1921, Mussolini and 35 other fellow Fascists became members of the Italian Chamber of Deputies. (Benito Mussolini, 2003) This was partly due to a coalition Mussolini forged with then Prime Minister Gioletti, who sought to restore authority over the Italian citizenry, which he promptly broke as soon as he gained membership. (Rise of fascism in Italy under Mussolini, 2007) The Pacification Pact between Mussolini and the socialists in Parliament was an attempt to forge an alliance, but this was strongly opposed by the radical members of the Party, the squadristi, especially by their leaders, the ras. Attempts to disband the squadristi failed and the pact was dissolved. (March on Rome, 2007) The March on Rome and Military Loyalty The ruling Leftist party initiated a general strike against the Fascists in August 1922, and Mussolini saw his opportunity for his party to grab power. Mussolini counted on the indecisiveness of the Italian government under Prime Minister Luigi Facta and the growing discontent of the citizenry to hedge his gamble. He threatened a march to Rome of 40,000 strong Black Shirts, ostensibly as an intervention necessary to uphold a weak government as solidified by its failure to the secure the Italian-speaking town of Fiume as due recognition for the contributions of Italy to World War I. (Rise of fascism in Italy under Mussolini, 2007) However, Mussolini had to tread carefully because the King wielded much power in Italian society, especially the Armed Forces, which withheld full support for Mussolini's dictatorship until the very end. Mussolini needed the monarchy to legitimize his assumption of the premiership. Moreover, the King was personally popular with the people because of his military competence displayed during the War. (Pollard, 1998) It was unfortunate that Facta failed to take decisive action early on, finally declaring a state of emergency after being assured of the army's support. However, the popularity of Mussolini made the threat of civil war likely, and perhaps to avoid it, King Victor Emmanuel III unconstitutionally refused to approve the decree of Facta and offered Mussolini the position of Prime Minister on October 29, 1922. The announced march still pushed through on October 30 to satisfy Mussolini's supporters. Mussolini accepted the King's invitation and was hugely successful in inducing stability of the economy. (Benito Mussolini; Rise of fascism in Italy under Mussolini, 2007; Rise of Mussolini: to 1922, 2006) King Victor EmmanuelIII as puppet king The behaviour of King Victor Emmanuel III during the time of Mussolini was incomprehensible in light of his previous show of leadership. Reigning from 1900 to 1946, the king was moderate in his political stance; he was militarily competent and was popular with his subjects. All this makes it difficult to understand his apparent acquiescence to Mussolini's aggressive Fascist March on Rome in 1922 and the subsequent Fascist dictatorship that followed. Such acquiescence would eventually lead to his abdication in 1944. (Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy, 2005) There is some speculation that his apparent infatuation with Mussolini was based on the desire to expand his dominion. King Victor Emmanuel III was king in name only under the dictatorship, but Mussolini's conquests made him the emperor of Ethiopia from 1936 to 1943 and king of Albania from 1939 to 1943. Unfortunately in 1943 the Fascist grand council voted for the dismissal and arrest of Mussolini, which the king had to enforce. The next year the king was so vilified by his championship of Mussolini that he was forced to abdicate in favour of his son, Humbert II, who was later rejected by referendum in 1946, turning Italy into a republic and ending the monarchy. (Victor Emmanuel III, 2005) Alliance with the Catholic Church Aside from the monarchy, the papacy was another major force Mussolini had to reckon with. Even though Mussolini grew up believing the Roman Catholic Church too much power as an institution and referred to priests as "black beetles," he recognized early in his political career the need to maintain good ties with it precisely because of this power. He espoused the institution's directives, but in return Mussolini expected the Church's support of the dictatorship. However, some creases remained in the relationship, specifically over the control of education. A compromise was reached in 1929 after three years and was named the Lateran Treaties, which also included compensation for lost Papal States during the 1870 unification of Italy and establishment of the fully independent papal state, Vatican City. It also officially declared, in the Concordat, that the Roman Catholic faith was the state religion and required it to be taught in primary and secondary schools. A further point of dissension occurred in 1938 over the Charter of Race, which completely discriminated against Italian Jews. In protest, the pope wrote to Mussolini. Overall, however, the Church mostly signified approval of Mussolini's rule as in the best interest of the people. (Mussolini and the Roman Catholic Church, 2007; Pollard, 1998) The Matteotti Crisis and the Aventine Secession The rapid rise to power by the revolutionary Mussolini was hoped by many liberals to be too difficult to sustain. The belief that sooner or later, the new prime minister would make a mistake was anticipated. (Rise of Mussolini: to 1922, 2006) At first, this seemed an empty hope. Mussolini proceeded to solidify his position by introducing the Acerbo Law in 1923 which provided that the majority party in an election would automatically receive two-thirds of the parliamentary seats. He further ensured the success of the Fascist party by legitimizing the Black Shirts and calling it the partisan Milizia Volontaria Sicurezza Niazionale (MVSN) or Volunteer Militia for National Security which could be depended on to ensure a majority vote. The Fascist party garnered 65% of the votes in the April 1924 elections. (Rise of Mussolini: to 1922, 2006; Rise of fascism under Mussolini, 2007) The intimidation tactics of the MVSN did not sit well with the opposition. An outspoken socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti voiced his indignation by detailing the acts of violence and political corruption in a book he wrote entitled The Fascisti Exposed: A Year of Fascist Domination. He further denounced these tactics in a speech before the Chamber of Deputies on May 30, 1924. On June 10, 1924, six leading members of the MVSN (also referred to as the squadristi) abducted Matteotti, murdered him and buried his body on the outskirts of Rome. This caused an uproar among the one-third non-Fascist members of parliament and in June 15 100 deputies walked out of chambers in protest. This is referred to as the Aventine Secession, in reference to the Roman politicians who withdrew to the Aventine Hills to set up a separate conference. The secessionists declared a staunch determination to maintain the boycott until the government was cleared of the conspiracy. Moreover, the disbandment of the squadristi was demanded. (1924: Political Events, 2007; Rise of fascism under Mussolini, 2007; Rise of Mussolini: to 1922, 2006; Aventine secession, 2007) Mussolini denied all complicity in the murder, despite the implication of key Fascist party members. A strict monitoring of the press was imposed on July 1 and by August 3, public demonstrations by the opposition was suppressed. Mussolini's tactics were successful, and the public clamour soon died down, especially since the King refused to depose Mussolini. The implicated Fascist members, due for trial in 1926, were released. (1924: Political Events, 2007; Rise of fascism under Mussolini, 2007; Rise of Mussolini: to 1922, 2006) Moreover, the Aventine secession proved to be a boon to Mussolini as those who walked out were not allowed back into Parliament, effectively leaving the Fascist bloc in full control with nary a dissenting voice. All political expression outside fascism was suppressed, paving the way for Mussolini's dictatorship. (Aventine secession, 2007) The Dictatorship With a firm hold on parliament, Mussolini declared his establishment of a dictatorship government that effectively stripped the monarchy of any real political and economic power. All dissenting politicians were arrested while the press was muzzled by being given over to Fascist supporters.. By November 1926, control by the Fascist party was complete. By 1928, the candidates for the emasculated Parliament were selected by the Fascist Grand Council and the electorate could only choose to elect or reject the list. (Rise of Mussolini: to 1922, 2006) Industrial policy was dictated by Mussolini through control of the 22 Corporations formed by 1934 under the Corporation System he established, in which each industry sector formed its own corporation. Trade unions and strikes were outlawed. Theoretically, the system was to bring about social justice; however, this did not come to pass, as the wealthy still received preferential treatment. (Rise of fascism in Italy under Mussolini, 2007) Mussolini's aim for self-sufficiency was admirable. He attempted to maximize food production and land use as well as improve infrastructure and social services. However, it was only with the assistance of an able minister for finance that the economy of the country remained viable. With the dismissal of De Stefani, Mussolini lost control, and the situation was exacerbated by the Great Depression of 1932. (Rise of fascism in Italy under Mussolini, 2007) Conclusion Mussolini was a gifted and ambitious man, determined on the expansion of Italy much in the style of the Roman Empire. Up to a certain degree he succeeded in his endeavours, despite setbacks such as the Matteotti Crisis, which seriously undermined the popularity of the Fascist party he worked so hard to establish. Part of his success is due to the sanction of King Victor Emmanuel III and the papacy, but mostly it was the sheer force of his personality and his clever manipulation of events was he able to prevail over his political dissenters and gain total control. Unfortunately, it was a control he could not sustain because of economic and military mismanagement. (Whitman, 1998) References 1924: Political Events (2007) eNotes.com. Retrieved March 3, 2007 from http://history.enotes.com/peoples-chronology/year-1924 Aventine secession. (2007, January 8). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17:58, March 3, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.phptitle=Aventine_secession&oldid=99432144 Benito Mussolini (n.d.) NNDB. Retreived March 3, 2007 from http://www.nndb.com/people/468/000045333/ Benito Mussolini. (2003.) Comando Supremo: Italy At War. Retrieved March 3, 2007 from http://www.comandosupremo.com/Mussolini.html Benito Mussolini. (2007) History Learning Site. Retrieved March 3, 2007 from http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/benito_mussolini.htm Giacomo Matteotti (2007) Spartacus. Retrieved March 3, 2007 from http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWWmatteotti.htm March on Rome. (2007, February 15). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 12:32, March 3, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.phptitle=March_on_Rome&oldid=108398443 Mussolini and the Roman Catholic Church. (2007) History Learning Site. Retrieved March 2, 2007 from http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/mussolini_roman_catholic.htm Pollard, J. (1998) Mussolini's Rivals: The Limits of the Personality Cult in Fascist Italy Global Support. Retrieved March 3, 2007 from http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/semp/mussolini.htm Rise of Fascism in Italy under Mussolini. (2007) Yahoo! Inc. Retrieved March 3, 2007 from http://www.geocities.com/athlonelaura/mussofasc.html Rise of Mussolini: to 1922 (2006) Historyworld. Retrieved March 3, 2007 from http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.aspgroupid=3432&HistoryID=ac52 Victor Emmanuel (2007) Spartacus. Retrieved March 3, 2007 from http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWWvictor.htm Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy. (2005) Brigham Young University. Retrieved March 3, 2007 from http://net.lib.byu.edu/rdh7/wwi/bio/v/vic-eml.html Victor Emmanuel III. (2005) The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. [online] Retrieved March 3, 2007 from http://www.bartleby.com/65/vi/VictorEm3.html Whittam, J. (1998) Mussolini and The Cult of the Leader Global Support. Retrieved March 2, 2007 from http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/semp/mussolini2.htm Read More