The Potential of Diaspora Groups to Contribute to the Process of Conflict Resolution - Essay Example

? [DIASPORA GROUPS AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION] Introduction There has been an increase in cases of war and conflict across the world, and resolution efforts have become the main agenda for most countries and peace promoting organisations. Diaspora groups are universal ethnic common culture groups that have the same connection and characteristics to an existing or fictional motherland.1 This group of people are neither fully endogenous because they may live physically beyond their homeland nor exogenous because they retain their homeland political, economic and cultural connections. The reasons for leaving home include war, famine and seeking economic benefit. For the last twenty years, various researchers have carried out numerous studies to evaluate the ways in which Diasporas groups may impact both their home societies and host societies, but most of these studies fail to notice the potential of Diaspora groups to contribute to peace-building.2 There is a basis for reinforcing the inclusion of Diasporas groups in foreign policies and business policies to advance trade relations, however, safety for political development is a prevailing issue both in the public and expert circles.3 However, recent research has indicated that Diaspora groups can actively take part in the process of peace building and reconstruction in countries affected by conflict.4 Therefore, it should be noted that Diaspora groups have a greater potential to contribute towards the process of conflict resolution on conflicts affecting their home countries. This paper uses two case studies to analyses the capacity of Diaspora groups to play a role in the process of peace building. The two case studies are the Cyprus Conflict and the Ethiopian Conflict. In the Cyprus Conflict, analysis and evaluation of the role played by the Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots Diaspora groups in resolving conflict issues at their homeland has been done, while the role of Ethiopian Diaspora groups based in European countries and in the United States of America, in promoting a peaceful of the political crisis in their home country has been evaluated. This paper also discusses the various ways, through which the Diaspora groups from the aforementioned countries influenced the process of peace building. How Diasporas Contribute to the Process of Conflict Resolution Diasporas can contribute to conflict resolution by lobbying host land governments and international organisations, as well as aiding processes of transition to achieve political cooperation and non-violent resolution of political crises in their home country.5 Diaspora groups can also apply pressure to homeland governments and rebels to enhance non-violence conflict resolution, as well as, domestic development. For instance, Diaspora organisations, through host land governments, pressure war parties in the homeland to refrain from violence6. Instead they urge them to embrace non-violence interaction modes by discovering and drawing attention to their human rights abuses. Diaspora groups also influence the political realm in their home country by challenging their homeland government through support to the government or the opposition.7 This is done by offering funds and other forms of assistance to political parties, civil society organisations and social movements.8 Also, Diaspora groups with the right to vote can participate in the voting process, which can resolve a conflict within their homeland and promote peace building. The power of Diaspora groups to frame homeland conflict in various ways contributes to peaceful resolution of conflict. For instance, some of the activities of Diaspora groups strengthen some confrontational, homeland leaders and organisations, while other homeland leaders and organisations are undermined. This forces undermined organisations and leaders to seek compromise, and this resolves a conflict peacefully, avoiding violence.9 A prime example is that of the Ethiopian Diaspora in North America and Europe, which participated in activities that led to the participation of opposition in the May 2005 elections.10 Diaspora groups have strong, local ties with their homeland, which most likely gives them an upper hand in having access to the more isolated regions of their home country. This is a crucial asset for conflict resolution and it may be used to facilitate delivery of aid to victims of the conflict. For instance, evidence shows that Somali Diaspora organisations are capable of delivering aid to Somalia because they can operate in areas where internationals actors cannot. Using Diaspora groups to provide aid and promote peace is also cost efficient compared to international NGOs.11 Additionally, Diaspora representatives play central roles in ensuring peaceful transition towards a new post war order in their homeland countries. For instance, Afghan Diaspora groups took part in the course of the government building processes in Afghanistan.12 Diaspora networks have access to information, which can be used to develop their homeland.13 Diaspora population also make positive contributions to their home countries through community based NGOs, entrepreneurial endeavours, knowledge transfer, remittance flows and political entrepreneurship, which lead to peaceful resolution of conflicts.14 In addition, stateless Diasporas, who may not have a homeland government to address, may use protest to have their voice heard. Consequently, stateless Diaspora groups, which hail from a conflict laden homeland and want to attract the attention of host land governments and the international community, protest to influence the public opinion and policy makers towards their concerns.15 The method of protest intervenes in a government’s decision making. It also uses indirect channels to influence decision makers so that conflict can be resolved peacefully. Diaspora Groups, having settled in host countries, which in most cases, are characterised by technological development in communication methods, can capitalise on this to communicate with homeland nationals and urge them to seek peaceful resolution of conflicts. For instance, people in different countries managed to keep in close touch with each other, first by telephone, then by fax, and then through email.16 Later, Diaspora groups communicated through satellite cell phone, where they engaged in instant, real-time communications, either between themselves or between them and their homeland kin. Currently, social sites and blogs can be used by Diaspora groups for communication, and this mode of communication passes instant and real time messages and replies between the senders and receivers, hence enhancing fast communication.17 Diaspora groups should address the differences in attitude amongst themselves so as to attain revolution of movements in their homeland countries. For instance, APN Diaspora group engages in peaceful conflict resolution by dividing its effort equally between trying to make the opinion in the Jewish Diaspora temperate, lobbying the government of the United States of America to press for peace negotiations in the Palestine/Israel region and sending financial aid to the peace movement aid in Israel.18 Diaspora groups can contribute to peaceful conflict resolution through social remittances to their homelands. This means that ideas, norms, values and information is remitted to homelands by Diasporic actors, who have superior skills, experience and knowledge from their host lands. For instance, political engagement by Diaspora groups, which is characterised by peace building benefits, is a social remittance.19 Also, Diaspora groups contribute to development of democracy in their home countries by providing liberal ideas and participating the homeland country democratisation processes.20 Diaspora groups can work to bring representatives of the opposing parties of their home country and other third parties who can act as mediators into the negotiation table.21 For instance, Acholi Diaspora members put efforts to get the government of Uganda representatives, Government of Sudan representatives, and representatives of the rebel group known as the Lords Resistant Army and other groups who have a stake in the conflict into negotiations. This was achieved through conferences which acted as open forums for dialogue between the parties so as to promote a peaceful solution to the conflict.22 Separately, using soft power strategies, as the main conflict resolution strategy, the Irish Diaspora in America pursued political lobby in the 1990s that led to the end of violence in Northern Ireland.23 This is because most of the Irish living in America are characterised by a mindset that is mobile, fluid and uses hybrid forms of communication which are capable of transcending geographical boundaries.24 Diaspora communities should promote their relationships in terms of their identity and play an active role in the politics of their host country and those of their home country.25 This identity, eventually, facilitates the active involvement in the Diaspora community and sustains the bonds and linkages that members of the Diaspora form with each other. For instance, money sent by Diaspora groups to their homeland can be used to reduce tension within the homeland and lead to peaceful resolution of conflicts.26 Mostly, the money that homeland countries receive from Diaspora groups is used for humanitarian activities.27 Ethiopian Conflict Ethiopian Diaspora population happens to be among the largest Diaspora populations in the world. Estimates indicate that the number of Ethiopians who live in North America, Middle East and Europe exceeds 2,000,000 people.28 The United States of America hosts the largest number of Ethiopians, which ranges from 250,000 and 500,000 (Appendix 1). In the Netherlands, there were about 10,600 Ethiopians by 2008. More than half of the Ethiopian Diaspora in the Netherlands has more than average level of education.29 Most of the Diaspora organisations in the Netherlands participate in peace building and humanitarian activities in their homeland countries. Currently, Ethiopian Diasporas have established well in the European continent. Some Ethiopian citizens migrated to countries of the European and American continents in search for education, but mainly migration of Ethiopians from their home country to other countries has been induced by conflict. Some Ethiopians fled their country during the Red Terror years of 1977 to 1982 in Ethiopia.30 These migrants received residence permits in Western countries where they were recognised as political refugees who were allowed stay in such countries for long. They were even provided with work permits. Mengistu Haile Mariam’s rule in1982 led to fighting that killed many opposition supporters, as Tigrayan and Eritrean opposition movements were being barred from pursuing independence from Ethiopia. This caused great economic trouble that led to migration from Ethiopia. After the Mengistu regime was overthrown in 1993, a referendum was held, supervised by the United Nations was held.31 This led to the creation of Eritrea, an independent state. Ethiopia launched a new constitution in 1994, and in 1995 the country held its first multi-party elections. Many of the former migrants and refugees returned home because of the promising political climate, but in the years of border war between Ethiopia and Eritrea many people left the country again.32 Most of the Ethiopian citizens migrated to countries of the Middle East and some went to Sudan. There are also significant populations of Ethiopian Diasporas in European countries such as Germany, United Kingdom, Sweden and the Netherlands and in the United States of America. Role of Diasporas in ensuring Peaceful Resolution of the Ethiopian Conflict According to the mapping research done in 2008, there were about 167 Ethiopian Diaspora groups in Germany.33 About 50 of them engage in peace relevant activities. Majority of the German-based Ethiopian Diaspora organisations engage in community support, human rights and development co-operation and humanitarian aid. For instance, Tigray Development Association (TDA), implements various development and peace building and conflict mitigation projects. The organisation receives finance from fund raising activities online and through events and membership fees.34 It should also be noted that TDA’s activities include rehabilitating schools and health centres, skills training, investment promotion and most importantly, conflict resolution.35 In this way, Ethiopian Diaspora groups are able to participate in the peace building process of their country, through the association. Other Diaspora network organisations, with strong peace building relevance have been formed by the Ethiopian migrants who live outside Ethiopia. A prime example for the Ethiopian case is ENNOS, a Diaspora group network. These alliances allow members of Diaspora groups to gain knowledge from each other by identifying peace strategies and initiatives. In turn, Diasporas improve coordination and enhance dialogue with external parties, which might lead to peaceful conflict resolution.36 Many organisations in host countries carry out awareness campaigns, which involve Diaspora groups. This creates an opportunity for Diaspora groups to take part and widen public knowledge regarding their home countries’ situation. For instance, the IOM works with Diasporas and Diaspora organisations. Specifically, IOM’s Temporary Return of Qualified Nationals programme is dependent on the support of Ethiopians to pass information to individual Ethiopian individuals who wish to return home to contribute to local development.37 In addition, by residing outside their homeland, the Ethiopian Diaspora groups have gained relevant competencies and skills, which they can transfer to their homeland country. For instance, the Ethiopian Diaspora based in Finland and the Holland have been provided with an opportunity to participate in long-term reconstruction processes of their country, through return projects that have been initiated in their host countries.38 As far as human rights are concerned, Ethiopian Diaspora organisations have sought and are still committed to raise awareness. A prime example is the Ethiopian Human Rights Council in Germany, which reports human rights violations. Also, the Oromo Human Rights and Relief Organisation and the Union of Oromo Students in Europe contribute to peaceful conflict resolution through protests against human rights violations, as well as, by publishing human rights violations.39 Separately, Ethiopian refugee groups based in Germany initiated and funded a movement, the Ethiopian War Resisters’ Initiative in 2007. This organisation advocated for peaceful resolution of conflicts in Ethiopia and supported the right to refuse forced recruitment. Other organisations such as the EWRI are responsible for finding out the potentials of using civil disobedience and peaceful resistance to enhance non-violent social and political change.40 Diaspora groups also promote offer counselling services to aggrieved parties or victims of violent and promote reconciliation, a move that contributes to peaceful coexistence and resolution of conflicts. For instance, TDA, one of the largest Diaspora organisations in Germany initiated, monitored and completed a three year conflict resolution project. The project was responsible for counselling and reconciliation to improve neighbourhood relations between communities.41 Ethiopian Muslim Diasporas have been actively participating in enhancing democratic politics in their home country, through rights based advocacy.42 There are two major, Ethiopian Muslims Diaspora organisations. One such organisation is based in the United States of America and is known as Badr-Ethiopia. The other Diaspora organisation is the Network of Ethiopian Muslims, based in Europe. Badr and the Network of Ethiopian Muslims are engaged in advocating for socio political rights of Muslims of Ethiopia, which is a very crucial issue for the peaceful co-existence within Ethiopia. The Network of Ethiopian Muslims and Badr are concerned with the introduction of legislative and public policies that can protect civil rights and humanitarian rights for Muslims of Ethiopia and freedom of worship. The groups advocate for peaceful assembly of people as they worship and they have petitioned the Ethiopian government to redress grievances. They have had open dialogues with other faith based organisations and the government to facilitate mutual understanding, peaceful coexistence and cooperation among the different groups of people in Ethiopia. 43 Through their strong cyber presence, Badr and the Network of Ethiopian Muslims have issued statements about the current socio political events in Ethiopia. The two organisations have also held peaceful demonstrations to criticise the Ethiopian government for disregarding religious rights. Other activities that the Network of Ethiopian Muslims and Badr have engaged in include organisation of homeland Diaspora meetings, teleconferences, online radio stations and sending of delegations to their home country to hold peaceful negotiation talks.44 Therefore, the Ethiopian Muslim Diaspora’s activities contributed significantly to peace building and Ethiopian identity politics. Ethiopian Muslim Diaspora representatives sent a delegation, which visited their home country to push for recognition of Muslim identity. The visit was focused, consistent and peaceful. The delegation had meetings with government officials including the then prime minister, Meles Zenawi. Also, the delegation reached out to other religious groups and urged them to foster peaceful religious co-existence. This move has a great peace building potential.45 The Ethiopian Diaspora engaged in the resolution of the national crisis that emerged after the 2005 national elections. For instance, after the 2005 elections in Ethiopia, there was a national crisis. Diaspora leaders worked in partnership with local elders in the efforts of national reconciliation. Through mobilization, the Diaspora community became the voice of the Ethiopian people who were suffering in jail. The Diaspora groups were so dedicated to have such concerns heard by the Ethiopian authorities and the international community. They protested, and their protests were heard by human rights leaders, civic and religious leaders and Western parliamentarians. The Ethiopian Diaspora groups were dedicated to ensure that their country headed to the right direction of bringing peace and national reconciliation.46 Also, the Ethiopian Diaspora was concerned that their homeland country should enjoy democracy and economic development for the benefit every citizen of Ethiopia. Through the support of the Diaspora, it was possible to achieve motivation of Ethiopian citizens in all parts of the word so that the democratisation process was given the priority it deserves and those in jail were always remembered. The Diaspora also managed to organise public protests, in conjunction with other third parties who felt that it was imperative to enhance the movement for democracy and freedom.47 There are other Diaspora organisations that have contributed to conflict resolution in Ethiopia. For instance, the Ethiopian Women for Peace and Development is among the Diaspora organisations that are engaged in the promotion of peace in Ethiopia. The Diaspora group was established in 1991, and it strongly opposes war of any kind. Instead, the Diaspora organisation insists that peaceful means of conflict resolution should be used to bring about reconciliation in the country.48 2.0: The Cyprus Conflict Cyprus is composed of 80% Greek and 18% Turks (Appendix 2). Civilian unrests were dominant from 1963 and 1974. Division of the territory occurred in 1974, after intervention of the Turkish military invaded the Northern part of Cyprus , leading to the arrival of the United Nations troops to guard that area since the period of invasion49 The Island of Cyprus is characterised by one of the world’s most prolonged conflicts. The conflict originates from a discourse of two different communities, the Greek Cypriot and the Turkish Cypriot, over the issue of representation. There are more than 100,000 Turkish and Greek Cypriot Diasporas who have settled in London. In total, there are about 4,000,000 Greek Diasporas living United States of America, Europe, Germany, South Africa and Middle East, among other places.50 Also, about 3.5 million Turkish Diasporas live in Germany, Holland, United States and Austria, among other countries. There are various cases where Cyprus Diaspora groups have involved themselves in the conflict resolution process. For instance, the German- based Cypriot Diaspora communities launched several initiatives to make the processes of conflict resolution in Cyprus involve Europe and the international community, by use of lobbying and gate keeping.51 Turkish and Greek Cypriots have settled in Australia, Canada and England, and they are not divided in their host lands. It should be noted that Greek Cypriots are friendly to Turkish Cypriots while in their host lands and these groups have learnt to live together. They have realized that they are Cypriots first, and they are committed to see their country of origin reunified. The coexistence of Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots outside their country can be emulated to contribute towards a peaceful resolution of the prevailing conflict in their homeland. 2.1: Role of Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots Diaspora Groups in Resolving Cyprus Conflict Cypriot Diaspora groups represent the interest of Cyprus abroad. The republic of Cyprus urges its Diaspora groups that are based in the United Kingdom and other parts of the world to represent the interests of the republic abroad, in the Cyprus conflict.52. This attracts the attention of third party mediators to be actively involved in the mediation process and resolution of the conflict. Consequently, a peace process has been initiated and perpetuated. Diasporas have a significant role to play in conflict resolution, a reason why the value of the Greek Diaspora in assisting the Greek state when it is challenged on vital national issues such as the Cyprus conflict is stressed by politicians.53 It is imperative to note that Diasporas can join civil societies to pressure for peaceful resolution of conflicts in their home.54 For instance, in a meeting in London, a call to the network for Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot civil society organisations to have an inclusive peace process was made and this led future engagement promises. This move proposed by Engi, which is a social enterprise that promotes non-violent management of conflict, provided a platform for the United Kingdom to fare on with the ongoing peace process of Cyprus. With third parties such as UK’s government officials and parliamentarians, NGO representatives and academics as mediators, the initiative was set to achieve success in the peace process in the near future. Cyprus Diaspora groups were urged to participate in corroborative projects in Cyprus. The incomplete peace process received an encouraging message, as the Cyprus Diaspora groups promised to be involved in the activities of the initiative.55 Separately, research shows that civil society can build trust and encourage reconciliation. For instance, civil society facilitates connections and openings for interactions between Greek and Turkish Cypriots, which promotes an understanding on each group about the other. This can lead to confidence and trust, which also enhances appreciation and interdependence.56 Cypriot Diaspora group have played a very significant part in the ongoing Cyprus conflict resolution. For instance, through direct political support, Diaspora groups capitalise on the good relations that they have with both people of their host countries and those of their homeland to share ideas and knowledge with people in their home country. They also, where applicable, play a role in peaceful resolution of home country conflicts by participation in advisory councils or governments of transitions. If Diasporas are not allowed to vote, they participate in elections through other means. The Turkish Cypriots helped finance election campaigns and carried out political campaigns through major media such as newspapers of Cyprus, where they provided support to a presidential election aspirant on their own initiative. They also produced an airplay of campaign program for main Television channel of Cyprus.57 Offering support to political groups in their campaigns has enabled the Cypriot Diasporas to promote and enhance continuation of a peaceful conflict resolution process in their home country. Greek Cypriot, Diaspora groups also used lobbying as a strategy of influencing the stand of their host land government and other authorities on the Cyprus Conflict. By lobbying host land governments and international organisations, Diaspora groups achieve political cooperation and peaceful, due process of resolution of conflicts that exist in their home countries. The Greek Cypriot Diasporas used a lobby on the House of Representatives of the United States of America and this has exerted pressure on the government of the United States of America to take early measures in continuing to resolve the current Cyprus conflict. In addition, Cyprus Diasporas in Germany used a lobby against the German government and the European Union to push for the continuation of the momentum of recent conflict resolution efforts.58 Therefore, by putting pressure on countries such as the United States of America and Germany, the Cypriot Diaspora has managed to contribute significantly towards the ongoing process of conflict resolution. Conclusion From these case studies, it has been established that the situation of Diaspora groups can change in response to events in their homelands or host lands.59 Migration orders and the changes and upheavals in them are shaped by human agency, and such upheavals may shape migrant communities, leading to the making and unmaking of Diasporas.60 Diasporas choose the type of community that they create and the types of purposive action they pursue. Therefore, they can engage in constructive and non-violent activities such as peace building.61 Diaspora groups have the potential of participating in conflict resolution more than third party mediators can because they have close ties with the conflicting parties, as well as third parties who can act as mediators. They are motivated to push third parties to speed up the peace process. 62. Diasporas have a crucial duty to take part in as far as conflict resolution and promotion of peace are concerned, and they represent and important resource that brings negotiated settlement to violent conflicts.63 The Ethiopian Diaspora community in Germany exhibits a high education level, integration and is prepared to engage in conflict resolution and development. With the aid of the many initiatives and organisations that the Diaspora groups have established, there is a high potential of Ethiopian Diaspora groups contributing to peaceful resolution of conflicts.64 The Ethiopian Diaspora made remarkable contributions to peace and conflict resolution through its attempts to bring the warring parties together for peace negotiations.65 Greek Cypriot Diasporas lobbied the US government through the US House of Representatives to press the US to take part in the resolution of the Cyprus conflict that is still under process. Cypriot Diasporas in Germany have also lobbied German and EU parliaments to play an active role in the ongoing Cyprus conflict resolution efforts.66 Separately, Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot, Diaspora groups used a lobby on the United States’ government to pressure for the ongoing resolution of the Cyprus Conflict in a proactive manner. They also lobbied the German and European Union Parliaments to continue the momentum of continuing to resolve the Cyprus Conflict. They also participated in direct political support and took part by participating in advisory councils or governments of the ongoing transitions. By financing election campaigns and carrying out media campaigns in Cyprus’ major newspapers and supporting a presidential aspirant in the election on their own initiative, the Turkish Cypriots Diasporas have worked positively to ensure that resolution of the Cyprus Crisis becomes successful in the near future. Therefore, Diaspora groups have a potential to contribute to the process of conflict resolution. Appendix Appendix 1: Ethiopian Diasporas Region U.S Netherlands U.K Germany North America, Middle East and Europe Estimated Number of People 250,000-500,000 10,600 100,000 3,500,000 More than 2,000,000 Appendix 2: Composition of Cyprus Population Bibliography Amrith Sunil S. Migration and Diaspora in Modern Asia (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2011). Antwi-Boateng Osman. "The Transformation of the US-Based Liberian Diaspora from Hard Power to Soft Power Agents." African Studies Quarterly (2012) 57-74. Baser Bahar and Swain Ashok, "Stateless Diaspora Groups and their Repertoires of Nationalist Activism in Host Countries," Journal of International Relations, (2010), pp. 37-60. Baser Bahar, and Swain Ashok. "Diasporas as Peacemakers: Third Party Mediation in Homeland Conflicts." International Journal on World Peace, (2008) 7-28. Baubock Rainer, and Faist Thomas. 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