Contemporary Middle East: Discussion Questions - Essay Example

Middle East Discussion It is certainly imperative to that defensive developmentalism was quite unsuccessful especially in the Ottoman Empire. In a way, much of this failure was a consequence of the very nature of this enforced modernization. Defensive developmentalism certainly restricted the flowering and growth of economic autonomy and constitutionalism in these regions. The enforced process led to a pause in the constitutional development and the masses became increasingly disaffected. In any case, the societies in these regions were somewhat in crises as competing forces totally affected the transformation of the societies. This is well seen in the case of Egypt and Persia in which case the effects of these forces continue to play. Many people were always skeptical to the idea of giving away their resources as a way of creating much interconnection with the state (Finkel, 2006). 2) The Wahhabi Muslim fundamentalists believed that Muslims should return to the very fundamental Islamic ways as outlined in the Quran and the Hadith. Much of their beliefs were informed by the teachings of medieval theologians like Taymiyyah. They believed in the Islamic doctrine of Tawhid in which the unity and uniqueness of God were greatly revered (Philby, 2004). More importantly, these Muslim fundamentals believed that philosophical interpretations of the Quran and the Hadith could mislead the people. As such they totally opposed such interpretations. On the other hand, Muslim modernists like Malkom Khan were pushing for the reconciliation of the Islamic faith with such modern values like democracy, nationalism, equality and progress. In this case, the critical evaluation of issues in the context of jurisprudence was greatly cherished. Indeed, these beliefs have considerable impact in the Middle East to this day. 3) The Osmanlilik reform movement was developed during the first constitutional era in the Ottoman Empire. The essence of this movement was its belief that it could solve some of the pressing issues that affected the masses at the time. In any case, many of the proponents of Ottomans were influenced by the French revolution (Kia, 2008). At the core of their ideologies was the concept of equality before the law. In this regard, aspects of head tax, conscription, and military service were applied to everyone in equal measure. Citizenship of the empire was therefore a common affair irrespective of any orientation or affiliation. It should however be realized that Osmanlilik was greatly rejected by many Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Many of the adherents of Osmanlilik were lost during the first Balkan War and this led to its eventual failure. 4) The Young Turks Revolution of 1908 was driven by a group of likeminded Turkish nationalists, pluralists and a group of other secularists who totally blamed the Sultan for the harried state of the Empire at the time. The Sultan had suspended the parliament and this was restored effectively by the revolution. It was however realized that the process of replacing monarchic institutions with constitutional ones was not easy as had been initially presumed. The unity of the young Turks and the wide support they enjoyed across the land and beyond was indeed instrumental in their successful deposition of the Sultan in 1909. In a way, the Young Turks basically stood for change as opposed to the state of affairs realized at the time. Their goals were therefore different from those of the Osmanlilik (Ruggiero, 2003). 5) The general area of the Middle East greatly attracted much of Europe leading to the European domination of the region and the subsequent influence. Politically, the United Kingdom began this influence by taking over the government of Cyprus which was a protectorate of the Ottoman Empire. This was basically as a result of the Cyprus Convention. In this regard, the British greatly influenced the political, social and economic life of this region. In the same way as Syria became part of the French protectorate, it was realized that the French manner of life was somewhat spread in this region. The present war between the Arabs and Jew as seen in the Middle East was partly a result of the European influence the region. 6) In the immediate aftermath of the World War I, it was realized that several nation states were formed. Prior to the war, several countries claimed different territories while others sought to annex new ones. In any case, the aspect of territorial claim was one of the important parameters in the context of the war. At the end of the war, it was realized that nine nation states had been formed as a consequence of the circumstances during that time. Some of the countries actually came about as a result of break ups between countries while others were formed through joining of different countries (Fischer & Sharp, 2007). Countries like Austria and Hungary were formed from such break ups while Poland which had been out of the map came up eventually. 7) Zionism is a kind of nationalism realized in the Jewish culture which basically supports the nation state of Jews in Israel. The focus of Zionism is the enhancement of the nationalism of the Jews as opposed to their assimilation into the societies. In this regard, Zionism has always pushed for the return of the Jews into the land of Israel in order for them to make up the majority of the population. Much of this move is geared by the cases of anti-Semitic behavior often directed towards the Jews (Engel, 2009). As such, the Zionist movement seeks to ensure that Jews stay together in their nation. When the Unites Nations decide that the thousands of stateless Jews be resettled in Palestine, there was much opposition from the native Palestine’s which led to the Arab-Israel war in 1948. 8) The period characterized by the fall of communism had a profound effect especially in the Arab world. In a way, many countries in the Arab world became increasingly powerful and were mainly characterized by authoritarian tendencies. The United States became much influential in the Middle East after the fall of communism and this created an increasing sense of Islam fundamentalism (Thayer, 2003). The feeling of the West being interested in the affairs of the Middle East led to a lot of opposition in the Middle East. In this regard, many leaders became powerful as they sought to establish their strong positions in the overall affairs of the region. Coupled with the crises realized in the oil industry, it was therefore a matter of authority throughout the Middle East. 9) Across the Middle East, oil continues to have major influence in all aspects of life. The presence of large supplies of oil in the region has always been a political affair as governments become very powerful and use the oil money to create political ties and establish an influence across the world. Economically, while the money obtained from the oil is always much, the economic history of these countries is always grim. Political upheavals have made it much difficult for the realization of much economic gains. However, considerable developments have been realized with respect to infrastructure (Little, 2002). In the same way, oil completely defines the social; lives of the Arab world as can be realized through the various social disunities. Without oil, Middle East might be economically impoverished given the climate. On the other hand, the presence of oil has created the tumultuous environment realized. 10) The United States has always had several interests in the Middle East. In a way, many of these interests are achieved while others fail. One of the major American interests in the region is the continued supply of oil at the lowest possible price. Considering its industrial might, the United States needs much of the oil produced in the Middle East. In this case, the country has always gone at great lengths to ensure the supply of this product. The United States has been supporting repressive and corrupt regimes in order to win their favor and ensure the continued supply of oil (Cooper, 2011). In any case, the oil interest has been successful considering the continuous flow of oil into the United States from the Middle East. However, United States interest has been very inconsistent in order to ensure the realization of its interest. 11) Unlike the other countries in the Middle East, the Ulama in Iran had much influence in the political direction the country took. In this regard, the Ulama actually took over power and their influence was seen in the Iran revolution in 1979. Several factors contributed to the powerful nature of the Ulama in Iran. Under the weak Qujar and Safavid dynasties, the political and economic influence of the Ulama actually increased greatly. The scholars were the major source of opposition to the existing state of affairs in the country and this gradually led to their power and influence (Majd, 2000). They subsequently assumed leadership of the country which culminated into the Iranian revolution. The anti-American feeling was a direct consequence of the United States incessant meddling in the affairs of the country and the region and general. This was mostly seen during the Carter administration. 12) Political Islam sets forward a series of ideologies which seek to ensure that Islam guides the entire social, political as well the personal lives of the people. It advocates for the implementation of Sharia law to the people and the elimination of non-Muslim peoples and practices from the Muslim world. Politically, Islam is seen to be overly opposed to the seemingly dominant position of the West in the affairs of the Muslims (Aksikas, 2009). The patronage of the West is therefore of the core aspects that greatly defines Islamic through. Secular nationalism on the other hand, advocates for the separation of government and the State from religion and other religious factors. In this case, people serving the state should be separated from religious dignitaries. Of the two Muslim denominations, the Sunni are more dominant compared to the Shia. References Aksikas, J. (2009). Arab modernities: islamism, nationalism, and liberalism in the post-colonial Arab world. New York: Peter Lang. Cooper, A. S. (2011). The oil kings: how the U.S., Iran, and Saudi Arabia changed the balance of power in the Middle East. New York: Simon & Schuster. Engel, D. (2009). Zionism. Harlow, England: Pearson/Longman. Finkel, C. (2006). Osman's dream: the story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923. New York: Basic Books. Fischer, C., & Sharp, A. (2007). After the Versailles Treaty: Enforcement, Compliance, Contested Identities.. London: Routledge. Kia, M. (2008). The Ottoman Empire. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. Little, D. (2002). American orientalism: the United States and the Middle East since 1945. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Little, D. (2002). American orientalism: the United States and the Middle East since 1945. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Majd, M. G. (2000). Resistance to the Shah landowners and the ulama in Iran. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. Philby, H. S. (2004). Arabia of the Wahhabis. New York: Arno Press. Ruggiero, A. (2003). The Ottoman Empire. New York: Benchmark Books. Thayer, P. W. (2003). Tensions in the Middle East. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. Read More