Cultural Retention in the Caribbean - Essay Example

Cultural Retention in the Caribbean and Its Role in the Caribbean Peoples’ Daily Lives The Caribbean and its people have been formed by the harsh preconditions of British imperialism: (1) the need for territorial expansion; (2) the need for slaves to work in plantations; (3) the need to impose racial differentiation to divide and rule in order to preempt any possibility of rebellion; and (4) the need to impose a culture that will serve the best interest of British colonization. These preconditions did create a creole society which culture is predominantly Afro-Caribbean, perhaps, due to the large numbers of Africans who were either kidnapped or bought from the villages of Africa and the most importantly because the socio-economic base of British rule was black slavery in sugar plantations. To Sheridan’s (2000) account, the sugar revolution, which was most evident in the history of Bardados (1640-1650), had caused the re-emigration of whites to other colonies and had brought in enslaved Africans in increased numbers (p. 133). As oppressed peoples have always been able to retain aspects of their cultural traditions, perhaps, because it is their most basic way of resistance to oppression, African culture remains strong in the Caribbean despite the intrusive cultural forces of globalization – for example, “the massive influence of the US mass media” (Safa, 1987, p. 124). As Hillman (2009) has described: “… throughout history the people of the Caribbean have been engaged in heroic struggles to liberate themselves from the structures and exploitation of colonialism, slavery, imperialism, neocolonialism, and dependency” (pp. 1-2). Black Music and the Awakening of Black Consciousness After long years of having been forcefully departed from their African roots, African culture persists in the Caribbean through music – the same medium that their black ancestors had used to preserve African culture as it was mixed with other creole cultures. The exploitation of music for political end was also used in Jamaica after independence as politicians’ traditional strategy was to exploit Afro-culture to win the massive Afro-Caribbean votes. It was this early politicization of music that inspired Black singers today to exploit music in the awakening of black consciousness as the question of national identity remains unresolved in the region. According to Brodber (1987), the popularization of Justin Hinds’ ‘Carry Go Bring Come’ – a song of resistance against Western tyranny as background music at the political gatherings of the opposition party during the 1966-1967 election campaign - has demonstrated music can be an effective instrument for the reawakening of black consciousness. This has inspired young singers to fearlessly express their feelings leading to the popularization of ‘Africanized’ songs in Jamaica. What made these songs Africanized is not only their contents which openly persuade their listeners to accept the Rastafarian concept of black history – the dominant theme of Bob Marley’s music that has been gaining international recognition up till today (pp. 153-154) – as well as their musical compositions, which are distinctively African: the beat (clave-rhythmic pattern), techniques (melisma and yodel), genres (blues, jazz, salsa, zouk, and rumba), instruments (drums, slit gongs, rattles, double bells) and style (festive and participatory). In his study of African music Merriam (1959) attributed the most outstanding characteristic of African music to “its emphasis upon rhythm… upon a percussive concept of musical performance… simultaneous use of two or more metres… use of hand-clapping as… accompaniment to song… presence of membranophones and idiophones as outstanding instruments of the orchestra, percussive intonation and attack…” (p. 13). In fact, music has always been important in African culture. How? Sidney Bechet explains: “Me, I want to explain myself so bad. I want to have myself understood. And the music, it can do that. The music, it’s my whole story” (as cited in Levine, 1977, p. 190). In short, to blacks, who even to the late US President Thomas Jefferson were found to be natural musicians and singers (Levine, 1977, p. 5), music acts not only as their medium of expression and communication but also as their tool for survival, for upholding traditional values, and for defending group cohesion. Through music blacks pour out their burdens; through music black slaves were able to bear the tedious grueling tasks of the day. “Throughout slavery black workers continued to time their work routines to the tempo of their music in much the same manner as their African ancestors” (Levine, 1977, p. 7). Until today, this central role of music to African culture remains even among the Afro-Caribbean. With their music, as Brodber (1987) explains, comes their speech, dress, art, sculpture and hair style that later formed a cross-culture of dread (p. 156), which revival, as Safa (1987) noted, is going throughout the Anglophone Caribbean (p. 121). The positive and dynamic effect of the culture of dread rests on its foundation – the Rastafarian philosophy – which envisions a revolutionary change, as it challenges racism and the class oppression of capitalism (Brodber, 1987, p. 156). The evident leaning to racial solidarity and black pride in the Anglophone Caribbean even among the mulatto Creole elite, who before were openly denying their African heritage, is forced on them by political expediency, because today ‘blackness’ itself has become a symbol of nationhood (Safa, 1987, p. 120). This means, without identifying themselves with black heritage, the mulatto Creole elite cannot successfully govern their part of the Caribbean region. Today, Afro-Caribbean music, singer and musician are widely recognized within and outside the Caribbean region. The Culture of Violence and Black Slavery Against the lively and colorful music of blacks is the dreadful persistence in the region of the culture of violence in the form of domestic violence (child abuse and espousal abuse) and gender violence (violence against women). To Brereton’s (2010) account, this culture of violence, which is evident specifically in Trinidad and Tobago, can be tracked back from the region’s early history of violence, as perpetrated by European slave traders and colonizers, and later was institutionalized through the system of indentured immigration. As early as from the 15th century (Christopher Columbus exploration) and to the end of the 20th century (Fidel Castro’s Cuban revolution) the importance of the Caribbean as a geopolitical and strategic crossroad had been recognized. This made the region susceptible to various forms of violence, as European powers interest over the region (Hill, 2009, p. 3) In fact, the earliest genocide in modern history occurred in the region and was actually a result of European’s aggressive slave trade. It was also the frequent violent slave raids that had caused the steady decline in the Amerindian population of the region (Boomert 1984, cited in Brereton, 2010, p. 2). Johnson (1997) cited Bartolomé de Las Casas’ account to vividly describe how the colonial Spaniards deceived friendly Indians to fall into their trap and be captive as slaves to be sold to Puerto Rico and Hispaniola. It was said that the friendly, all-trusting Indians were invited inside a house they themselves built for the Spaniards, who they thought were friends; but instead of friendly accord from Spaniards, the Indians were tied up and those caught escaping were cut into pieces. Those who managed to escape and those who did not enter the house found another shelter to defend themselves with bows and arrows against the Spaniards, but were torched to death by Christians. While those who went to Cuba worked as slaves for pearl diving only to experience further misery, because pearls there were of far greater value than the lives of divers. Divers were forced to death to get as much pearl as possible. Meaning, what would keep the divers alive was the pearl that they brought out from the depth of the ocean (as cited in Brereton, 2010, p. 2-3). It was also this horrible slave trading that had caused the demographic movement and the creolization of the Caribbean, especially during the sugar revolution. The violence of enslavement which unwittingly developed the culture of violence in the region both came from the master and the slave. The violence of enslavement from the master was legitimized by the state in three ways: first, slavery had become the backbone of the state economy, that it perpetrated slave trading – an economic activity that was inherently violent – to provide plantations for needed workers; second, it had given slave owners and managers full right to discipline their slaves at their discretion – this made corporal punishment inherent to slave ownership and management that physical abuse of slaves, including sexual abuse of enslaved women regardless of age and marital status, had become a norm in plantations, in factories, and in houses; third, to terrorize and preempt possible retaliation of slaves against the cruelties of their masters, harsher and more cruel punishments like torture and mutilation were exacted on slaves accused of crime. But these cruelties did not stop slaves from retaliating. A tradition of violent resistance to enslavement had been developed. In Tobago risings against enslavement had reached its highest point that none in the region can parallel. According to Craig-James (2008), successions of unsuccessful risings in 1770, 1771, 1772, 1774 and 1801, which were all unfortunately doomed, had resulted in reprisals and brutal punishment unimaginable – Caught rebels were amputated of their right hands and were burnt alive in public or decapitated leaving their heads mounted on poles in a public center; a captured ring leader was hung in chains and suffered for seven days before he finally died (as cited in Brereton, 2010, p. 12). The European concept of corporal punishment, which degree of severity depends on the gravity of the wrongdoing, was justified in the name of discipline and order – a concept and practice that penetrated the consciousness of slaves themselves. Thus child abuse and espousal violence to exact obedience and conformity had become an accepted norm in slave communities; furthermore, with violence as the main weapon of masters in asserting their authority and power, so does slaves use violence to become powerful, which they unfortunately did to other slaves whom they found weaker than they – This explains why violence against women either by white or black men in slave communities had become an acceptable norm. This culture of violence was further institutionalized in schools with corporal punishment as the main form of discipline. And so the cycle of violence went on and on and was carried on until today (Brereton, 2010). However, it should also be noted that not everything in black’s culture of violence was negative. When combined with their deep regard in protecting their families and their communities, and when executed for the purpose of liberating their race, violence had been pivotal in bringing about positive changes in their lives. Revolutionary Culture against Racism and Imperialism Just like the sugar revolution, the revolutionary culture of Afro-Caribbean against racism and imperialism had shaped the region into what is now today. As Safa (1987) explains, it was racism that justified the enslavement of Africans (p. 115) even after the abolition of slavery in the 1830’s (Brereton, 2010, p. 13); and it was imperialism that declared and imposed the oppressive racial ideology, which defined blacks the inferior race (Safa, 1987, p. 119). This new concept of racial ideology had systematically stripped off Africans of their African heritage that there seems to be no basis to envision a free, active Negro republic (Dallas, cited in Safa, 1987, p. 115). But the revolutionary culture of Africans proved this notion wrong, as the history of Caribbean was greatly shaped by black struggle for emancipation, as the soils of Caribbean was fed with their blood that were shed in revolution against racism and imperialism, and as the winds of Caribbean was filled with their sounds and echoes for freedom. In turn, it was their culture of revolution that created them a nation. As Geggus (2007) said, the African rebellion against their European masters in the revolution of 1789-1803 had given them their independence, leading to the transformation of the French Saint Dominique into the Republic of Haiti – the first ever black republic in the world. (p. 19). This revolutionary culture continued in the 20th century, as the black intellectual and artistic movement continued to drown with their relentless call for equal rights and recognition the attempt of national ideologies to quell and marginalize black voices (Davis & Williams, 2007, p. 143). Though the condition of Afro-Caribbean has changed a lot, the problem of racism and imperialism remains and has taken only a different form, as such the black revolutionary culture against racism and imperialism remains and is waged in various aspects of modern life. References Brereton, B. (2010). The historical background to the culture of violence in Trinidad and Tobago. Caribbean Review of Gender Studies, (4), 1-15. Retrieved from http://sta.uwi.edu/crgs/february2010/journals/BridgetBrereton.pdf Brodber, E. (1987). Black consciousness and popular music in Jamaica in the 1960s and 1970s. New West Indian Guide/ Nieuwe West-Indische Gids, 61 (3/4), 145-160. Retrieved from http://www.kitlv-journals.nl/index.php/nwig/article/viewFile/3371/4132 Davis, D. J., & Williams, J. M. (2007). Pan-Africanism, negritude, and the currency of blackness: Cuba, the Francophone Caribbean, and Brazil in comparative perspective, 1930-1950s. In D. J. Davies (Ed.), Beyond slavery: The multi-layered legacy of Africans in Latin America and the Caribbean (pp. 143-168). US: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Geggus, D. (2007). The sounds & echoes of freedom: The impact of the Haitian Revolution on Latin America. In D. J. Davies (Ed.), Beyond slavery: The multi-layered legacy of Africans in Latin America and the Caribbean (pp. 19-36). US: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Hillman, R. S. (2009). Introduction. In R. S. Hillman & T. J. D’Agostino (Eds.), Understanding the contemporary Caribbean (2nd ed., pp. 1-18). Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Levine, L. W. (2007). Black culture and black consciousness. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. Merriam, A. P. (1959). Characteristics of African music. Journal of the International Folk Music Council, 11, 13-19. Safa, H. (1987). Popular culture, national identity, and race in the Caribbean. New West Indian Guide/ Nieuwe West-Indische Gids, 61 (3/4), 115-126. Retrieved from http://kitlv.library.uu.nl/index.php/nwig/article/viewFile/3369/4130 Sheridan, R. B. (2000). Sugar and slavery: an economic history of the British West Indies, 1623-1775. Traverse City, MI: Canoe Press. Read More