Muslim Empire In Spain ( Alandalus ) - Research Paper Example

The Al Andalus is derived from the historical fact that Al Andalus was once called Vandalus, meaning “the land of vandals”. It was d after the Vandals who were first settled here but later moved to other parts of Europe (Flow of History, 2007). Vandalus was pronounced more like “wandalus” at that time thus when the Muslims first arrived in this region they spoke Arabic , in classical Arabic "wa" can be replaced with the letter alif (w/hamza) Hence it ended up in Al Andalus keeping the same meaning to it. Al Andalus refers to the Muslim empire in Spain (former name Hispania) and includes the cities of Almeria, Malaga, Cadiz, Huelva, Seville, Cordoba, Jaen and Granada. HISTORY In 711 AD, the Christian chief Julian went and appealed to the governor of North Africa Musa ibn Nusair for his assistance against the tyrannical rule of Roderick in Spain. The Moorish Umayyad army consisting of 7000 troops from North Africa under their Commander Tariq bin Ziyad crossed the state of Gibraltar and gained control over much parts of the Iberian Peninsula. Roderick was killed in the battle and his Visigoth army was defeated. It was the start of an eight year Islamic rule in that region. From the 8th- 15th centuries, various parts of the Iberian Peninsula majorly Southern Spain, Portugal and France were ruled by the Muslims; which were mostly Arab or Berber. PERIOD The Muslim empire in Spain was not under a single reign instead it was a series of different successions made by various Muslim rulers. From 711- 716, the military troops under their leader Tariq ibn Ziyad conquered the region. In 756, the Umayyad prince Abd ar Rahman.I establishes the Emirate of Cordoba. It was a blooming time of the Umayyad dynasty as well as for the Arab culture (BBC, 2009). Later Abd ar Rahman.III took over. The reign of Umayyad dynasty in Spain lasted from 756- 929. Civil wars in 1009 and 1013 totally collapsed the Emirate of Cordoba. As result of this various small states came into being. These states known as the “ Taifas” were divided amongst Arabs, Berbs and Iberian Muslims. As they were weak in military power and thus asked the help of the North African warriors to help fight the Christian kings. From 1080- 1250 Almoravids and then Alhomads ruled. DECLINE In 1212, the Christian states united against the Alhomads . And till 1252 nearly all the Iberian Peninsula came under the three Christian states of Portugal, Aragon, and Castile. The reason of decline of the Muslim empire in Spain was not because the Christians were strong, but it was because the Muslim rulers were cutting each other’s throat and hence was becoming weaker. By the mid thirteenth century the Muslim rule in Spain was limited to a thin mountainous strip of land in the south. In 1230-40 Muhammed ibn Yusuf ibn Nasr founded a state centered around the city of Granada. Granada had a weak economy and had to face internal conflicts as well.Also the Muslims in North Africa at that time, went into decline and could no longer provide Granada their support (Islam & Islamic History, 2001). The Christian States of Castile, Aragon and Portugal united and grew stronger. In 1474, war started and one city after another came to the Christian artillery. In 1492, after an eight-month siege, Granada also became a part of Christian artillery. The Muslims in Spain finally lost all their in 1492.And by 1502, after 800 years the Christians gained power again and issued orders involving Muslims to convert to Christianity, otherwise imposing brutal limitations. The Muslim empire in Spain made various contributions in many fields. During Abd ar Rahman III reign, books from Baghdad (as it was the centre for research back then) were brought to this land. Libraries, hospitals, Research centers and centre of Islamic studies were established. Scholars, historians, poets and researchers were invited to the region to make their contributions in their respective fields. ACCOMPLISHMENTS IN SCIENCE Science is a very vast field. The Muslim scientists and scholars contributed a lot in the various disciplines of Science. This included Astronomy, navigation, Earth sciences, medicine and many more. Mathematics and astronomy grew hand in hand with each other. The proficiency of Muslims in mathematics led to advancement in other fields like astronomy, engineering, art and architecture. SCIENCE LEGACY Muslims did valuable works in the field of science. These may include chemistry, physics, botany and zoology (Islam & Islamic History, 2001). Zoology is the study of animals. It has two types literary ad practically. Abu Ubaidah, an Andalusian zoologist wrote more than fifty books on the study he made on horse. “The Calendar of Cordoba” contained information about handling and taking care animals and various breeds. BOTANY Botany is the study of plants. Andalusian scientist did a great deal of work in the research of plants and their use. Ibn Bassal compiled a book in which he listed over 100 ornamental plants and their use. Ibn al-Awwam’s encyclopedia on use of 160 plants was translated into Spanish and helped in restoring the botanical history of Al Andalus. CHEMISTRY Andalusian Muslims applied practical chemistry solution in their industries. The purification and refinery of metals and minerals was done using various chemical processes. Al-Majriti was the first scientist who proved the principle of conservation of mass. ASTRONOMY During the 9th century Arab mathematical works were brought in Al Andalus, along with the translations and commentaries of Romans and Greeks works. They not only did advancement in the already done work but also contributed their own work. The best-known contribution by early Muslim mathematicians was the transfer of Indian numerals, the concept of zero, and its notation. One of the first mathematician and astronomer of Al Andalus was Maslamah al-Majriti. He was a student of many able scientists like Ibn Abi 'Ubaydah. He contributed a lot in mathematics and astronomy. He enlarged and accurate the astronomical tables made by the famous Al Khwarazmi. He added precision and compiled conversion tables of the Persian calendar with Hijrah dates (Glick, 1999). Al-Zarqali known as Arzachel in the west is another very famous scholar.He came to Cordoba in the eleventh century. His famous contributions include the creation of precision tools for astronomical use. He also invented a water clock which could determine the hours of day and night and could also show the days of lunar months. He provided his expertise in the well-known Toledan Tables. These tables include extremely accurate and precise collection of astronomical data. Arzachel was a very capable mathematician and astrologists. He not only compiled tables of latitude and longitude but also formed a book of tables which allowed one to find the days on which Coptic, Roman, lunar, and Persian months begin, could provide the position of planets at any time and could predict about solar and lunar eclipse. Al-Bitruji was also a very prominent scholar. In his Book of Forms, he compiled a new theory of planetary movement which was based on Aristotle’s thinking. His work gained popularity in the west. Muslim astronomers discovered many stars such as, Altair taken from al-tair meaning "the flier", Deneb derieved from dhanab meaning "tail" and Betelgeuse inspired from bayt al-jawza meaning "the house of the twins" or commonly known as "Gemini" (The Rise &Fall of Islamic Spain, 2007). GEOGRAPHY AND EXPLORATION: Muslim researchers did study in the field of geography, mainly because of their curiosity of the world and its inhabitants. The travelling done by Muslims helped them compile data. Famous travellors like Ibn Jubayr and Ibn Battutah made valuable contributions. Ibn Battutah was a well known traveler, who travelled for twenty- eight years and created a travel book of his experiences and adventures, routes and the way of living of people; which is great source of information for geographers .Al Idrisi was from Cordoba. He wrote a logical geography of the world known as the Book of Roger named after his investor Roger II, the King of Sicily. Muslim traveler making Pilgrimage to Makkah wrote their geographical works and made maps. Abu 'Ubayd al-Bakri wrote a “Book of Highways and of Kingdoms”. In this book he wrote the geography, climate and the way of living of people of Arabian Peninsula. He listed towns and famous places also. NAVIGATION As the location of the Iberian Peninsula is located between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean Seas thus when Muslims came to this land they made routes for trade to other lands by using navigation Navigation is a term which is used to describe the phenomena of ship building, sailing techniques and also making a route at sea using the stars. The Greeks invented various instruments to study the position of sun and moon, to which the Muslims added precision. Muslims scientists with the knowledge of mathematical geography could determine directions on land accurately. It was because Islamic mosques were to be made in the direction of Makkah. Muslim mariners compiled the data of Portlan charts and directions in manuals called rahmani, scholars today study it to find the earlier places and sea routes. Ship design was also very vital for navigation. Muslims put innovation in Hull design with their knowledge of hemispheric waterways. MEDICINE: Muslim Scientist contributed a lot to medicine. It is because the Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) stated that there is remedy for every illness. '' The Andalusian scientist e.g. Ibn al-Nafis, discovered the pulmonary circulation of blood in the body. Many physicians did excellent work in their field. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, was a famous surgeon known in the West as Abulcasis. He wrote a book called Tasrif, in which he complied his research on human body and surgery. It was used by the Europeans in the Middle ages. Hospitals and dispensaries were built all over the region. Hygiene was given proper attention, allotting different wards to different diseases. The hospitals had gardens and fountains, institute for training doctors were also established. An Andalusian Jewish physician, Hasdai Ibn Shaprut, at Cordoba translated work done on pharmacy using his understanding of Arabic, Latin and Hebrew. Ibn Rushd famous medical book “Kitab al-Kulyat fi al-Tibb” which is identified as the “Colliget” in Latin explained a range of diagnoses and cures for diseases and their prevention (The Rise &Fall of Islamic Spain, 2007). Ibn al-Khatib in one of his publications explained the theory of contagious diseases. He concluded that infection becomes more obvious to the examiner than to someone who has made no contact. He also discussed the transmission of bacteria and viruses through various mediums. CULTURAL LEGACY: TEXTILE Fabric of fine quality was traded as a form of currency. These fabrics included Cotton, linen, wool and silk. Such fabrics which were embroidered, printed or painted were used for long distance trade. These luxury textiles were usually for the richer community, including people from religious and political sector. During the Muslim rule in Spain, Al Andalus was made the hub of silk production. Silk threads were imported and silk worms were cultivated. Silk was one of the vital elements used for export. Andalusian silk textile contained patterns and designs which were inspired from Persia, Byzantine, and Mesopotamia and later Baghdad. Brocade silks was a very important article, was equally famous amongst the Muslim and Christian society. Cordoba was one of the earliest textile manufacturing centers consisting of 13,000 active looms. During the Almoravids reign the Spanish weavers were skilled to make complex weaving designs. The patterns made on textile were geometric as Muslims did not approve of any animal or any live creature motifs. The most important innovation made by Muslims in textile sector was the introduction of cotton in Al Andalus. They also produced dyed fabrics of high quality using pure colors from various plants e.g. yellow color was obtained from saffron. POTTERY Pottery was made by the people of Iberian Peninsula even before the Muslims came to this area. However, it grew as a major field and tile floors, buildings and walls became an important feature. Fine ceramics were made and traded to other lands. The ceramic artisans of Al Andalus further developed many styles and techniques which are still used in the ceramic world today. These techniques included cuerda seca meaning “dry cord,” in which design was drawn after the lay had been fired. This design was made by crayon of magnesium or other minerals mixed with oil or wax. It was more economical and would give mosaic effect. Various glazes could be filled in one object with this technique. “Lusterware” was another prominent technique. In this, white tin glazed object was painted with a metallic over glaze and then given a second fire. Sometimes cobalt blue was used for contrast. But it was an expensive process producing amazing results. The pottery items included vases for decoration, jars for medicines and plates etc. Even after the end of Muslim power, various ceramic artisans continued to work there under the Christian rule. ARCHITECTURE The most significant building in Islamic architecture is the mosque, which is the Muslim house of worship. Thus, when Muslim gained power in Spain mosques were built. As the mosques are empty on the inside thus that surface was used for decoration. The basic building would remain the same, but applied art was used to enhance its beauty. Verses from the Quran were written in calligraphic style. Walls, domes and arches were kept plain white or were decorated with carved and glazed tiles. Geometric patterns were only used and no figure of animal or human could be made. The Great Mosque of Cordoba is an example of the magnificent and innovative Muslim architecture. Double horse shoe shaped arches were made, which added height to the place and looked aesthetically pleasing (Islam & Islamic History, 2001). The use of color in architecture was a key feature of the Andalusian. Innovation was made in the design of arches and minarets, “poly-lobed” arches with carving gained popularity. Palaces made for the kings consisted of buildings with terraces, arches and spaces. Intense carving and tile work was done on walls, pillars, roofs and on the floor. LINGUISTICS AND LITERATURE Numerous Andalusian scholars contributed in the area of linguistic science and literature. Ibn al-Khatib, was a distinguished writer. He wrote more than fifty books on various aspects of life i.e. travelling music, politics etc. His famous work is the history of Granda. Ibn Khaldun was a well renowned historian of his time, writing books on the laws that govern the rise and decline of a civilization. PHILOSOPHY Andalusian intellectuals also worked on philosophy and wrote various books on it. They made an attempt to deal with the problems in Greek philosophy in the light of Islamic teachings. Ibn Hazm, who is considered to the giant of Islamic history, wrote 400 books (Glick, 1999). Ibn Bajjah, also known as Avempace, wrote the book named “Hayy ibn Yaqzan”, which tells the story of a child who grew up in absolute solitude on a desert, on his own abilities discovered utmost physical and meta physical realities MUSIC It is usually considered that music if forbidden in Islam. Many scholars cite the sayings of Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) that he did permit singing, as long as it does not distract from worship or tempt to lead to sins. Only those songs whose purpose is beneficial and the word used in it fall within the range of permitted speech could be sung. In Al Andalus music was treated as a field of mathematics. Thus many famous mathematicians contributed a lot in music. Al-Farabi, was a great musician. He worked on the music theory and write “The Great Book Of Music”. He also discussed musical scales, idea of pitch and tuning of instruments. Abul-Hasan Ali Ibn Nafi, commonly known as Ziryab, introduced lute in Spain by adding a fifth string and using an eagle’s talon to play. He was invites to Andalusian courts and trained young musicians about composition, rhythm and harmony. Various musical instruments were made by the Arabs in Spain e.g. the guitar is derieved from Arabic meaning guitara or kaithaar, the lute meaning ‘oud , the rebec from Arabic rabab and violin from kamancha. Poetry was also used as a form of music. CUSINE: Since the Muslims in Spain travelled a lot, thus their cuisine had international flavor to it. Spices from Persia, Africa and India came here.New crops were planted such as Eggplants, dates, melons and different types of nuts. AGRICULTURE: The Iberian Peninsula enjoyed a Mediterranean climate like the costal lands of Syria, Morocco and Lebanon. Al-Andalus was one of the centers of agricultural uprising. Muslims in Al Andalus introduced crops of oranges, almonds and many others. Gardens were made and fruits, crops and flowers were grown in it. Muslims brought with themselves many crops like Figs. Irrigation systems were observed and policies were made shaping plans about when exactly a crop should be cultivated. The Muslim scholars also studied the storing of water and its usage by farmers. The “Tribunal of the Waters” a group of officials based in Valencia is still operating from Muslim reign till today (The Rise &Fall of Islamic Spain, 2007). Ibn Bassal, originally an engineer and scientist wrote books about agriculture. He explained various types of soils and also the method with which they should be plowed to get best yields. As an engineer he worked on the hydraulic systems improving the system of wells and pumps. Ibn al-Awwam, Abul Khair and al-Tignari were also agricultural writers who described the techniques and methods of grafting fruit trees, preservating fruits and vegetables and the process of sugar making. TECHNOLOGY LEGACY: The Muslims brought with them many technologies, which further developed with time. Windmills were made by the Muslim engineers. Al-Qazwini explained the three-stage pumps used in silver mines (Glick, 1999). AVIATION: Muslim scientist Abbas ibn Firnas came to Cordoba as a musician, but due to his vast knowledge in various other fields he became interested in flying. To observe the mechanics of flight he constructed a glider .It was a pair of wings on wooden frame. He survived the flight with a back injury, his research after 600 years inspired Leonardo Da Vinci. EFFECTS ON KNOWLEDGE AND SCIENCE: The Muslims contribution to the field of science, social sciences and technology cannot be forgotten. They not only accurate the work done before them but also made valuable inventions and discoveries. It was because the Muslims travelled a lot and were always open to any knowledge they could grasp. Many technologies and advancement made today are on the basis of their research. REFERENCES “Muslim civilization in Spain (711-1492)” The Flow of History. 2007. 10. Nov.2011 “Muslim Spain (711-1492)” BBC: Religions.4Sept.2009.10.Nov.2011 “Science and Scholarship in Al-Andalus”. Islam and Islamic History in Arabia and the Middle East. Jan 2001. 10. Nov. 2011 “ Thomas F. Glick” Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages: Comparative Perspectives on Social and Cultural Formation .1999.10.Nov.2011 “The Material Culture of Al-Andalus” The Rise and fall of Islamic Spain.2007.11.Nov.2011 Read More