Major cusses of Greek Dark Ages - Research Paper Example

? Major Cusses of Greek Dark Ages Your al Affiliation This paper explores the Dark Ages and the major causes that thrust a splendid civilization like Greek into abrupt termination or presumably so. It briefly explores the authenticity of term Dark Age and its perceived occurrence. Drawing on the observations and evidences of Rhys Carpenter and V. Desborough, the paper concludes that Dark Age is a term that scholars used to name the interruption reported between evolutionary transitions from Mycenaean to Ionian Age. Irrespective of the terminology, presumed Dark Age was caused by depopulation or migration of Mycenaean as a result of natural disasters (earthquake or volcanic) rather than foreign invasion or Trojan War. Greek Dark Ages: Major Causes of Termination Dark Ages of ancient Greek is the latest scholastic term that refers to the centuries between 1100 and 800 B.C. The time period attributed as Dark ranges from Mycenaean civilization’s collapse to the establishment of Ionian Age. Abrupt and unanticipated destruction of such a wealthy and civilized culture as Greek is source of surprise and intense debate among literary and archeological circles. This paper explores the Dark Ages, major causes that led Greeks into it and concludes that the Dark Age itself is nothing but a gap of literary evidence in the evolutionary process as a consequence of climatic upheaval in the region during late seventh and eighth centuries. The term “Dark Ages” is recently coined by modern scholars who refer it as the period that intervenes between 1200 BC with the downfall of the Mycenaean palaces and around emergence of a new state form, called the polis. Ancient writers never acknowledged major distinction between historical period and heroic age .During 700 BC, writings of Hesiod represents a gradual decline of Greek society and symbolizes them with five successive “Ages”, referred as gold, silver, bronze, heroes, and iron age (Works and Days 109-76 as cited in Hall, 2006, p.202).On the other hand, Thycydides depicted early Greek history as progressive marked with stable growth of resources and power. However, the Trojan War aftermath brought immediate instability and migration (as cited in Hall, 2006, p.202).Hall (2006) further states: There is no real sense of a cultural or economic “trough” that stands in stark contrast to conditions [neither]before the Trojan expedition, nor again of a “renaissance” associated with the rise of the polis…Greeks believed that polis had existed from time immemorial. (p.203) Scholars endorsed Thucydides’ general schema up to 1870s,however,some in general and George Grote in particular highlighted that lack of recent evidence hinders the construction of Greek historical narrative before 776 BC(as cited in Hall,2003,P.203).Later, Heinrich Schliemann’s excavations at Troy in 1870-90s,Mycenae in 1876, and Tiryns in 1884(as cited in Hall,2003,P.203) not only established that Greek mainland had been a home to civilized culture, but also confirmed the sudden end of palaces associated with “Mycenaean” civilization. The major concern here is the collapse of Mycenaean civilization and its reasons. It is believed (as cited in Hall, 2003): Following Fliners Petrie’s publication in 1890 of Mycenaean pottery in Egyptian context of the 18th and 19th Dynasties and his conclusion that the Mycenaean palaces has been destroyed around 1200 BC, it became evident… gap of approximately five centuries between the collapse of the palaces and the first extant literature as represented by Hesiod and the lyric poets of the 7th century BC. The sheer paucity of evidence for this intervening period had already by the last decade of the 19th century led historians to term it a “Dark Age” or “the medieval epoch of Greece. (p.203) Foreign invasion by Dorians or Sea Peoples and colonization, Trojan War, internal conflicts, depopulation, and great migrations as a result of natural disaster and unfavorable living conditions were a few but frequently cited reasons of Mycenaean collapse. According to Hall (2003), it is evident that destruction of Mycenaean palaces triggered migrations and occupation of new lands, such as, eastern Attica, Emborio on Chios, Lefkandi on Euboea, laylysus on Rhodes, north Aegean, and Cyprus. However, most of the areas were occupied for short time because known settlement sites in Greece are less than half of the occupied sites of 1200-1150 BC. It may indicate the demographic decline; however, the possibility of seasonal or temporary occupation can not be overlooked (p.203). Carpenter (1966) and Bryson et al. (1947) hold on similar stance: In 1966 Rhys Carpenter developed an elegantly written argument for the collapse of Mycenaean civilization: that it and other thirteenth-century B.C. upheavals in the Mediterranean, were due to climatic change leading to famine, depopulation, and migration. What appears to be Mycenaean collapse in the Peloponnese is actually a drought-induced evacuation to other areas, including Attica. The climatologist Reid Bryson and his colleagues support Carpenter’s interpretation of this climatic fluctuation.(Bryson et al. 1947:47-50 as cited in Tainter, 1988, p.49) Velikovsky explains that despite the fact that The Dark Age chasm and ghost centuries are imaginary, there is no doubt about some interruption between the evolutionary processes of transition from Mycenaean to Ionian age which occurred somewhere between late bronze and early Iron Age. Great migrations in eighth and early seventh centuries also refer to such interruption (n.d., para. 3). Rhys Carpenter observes and reviews the evidence in Greek mainland and other regions on island and confronts some of the earlier archeological investigations of Greece and the Helladic islands in his book Discontinuity in Greek Civilization published in 1966(as cited in Velikovsky, n.d.). Carpenter (1966, p.58) concludes that there is no evidence that Mycenaean were forced to migrate by some human intervention. They abandoned south Aegean just like they left central Peloponnese. There was something uncontrollable for which they found life in Greece and southern Aegean unendurable. Carpenter explains that the reason of evacuation may be sudden change in climate, may be a famine, or pestilence (as cited in Velikovsky, n.d.) In order to establish a link between great migration and famine, Carpenter (1966, p.59) quotes Herodotus from seventh book of his History. Herodotus narrate that Crete were extremely harassed by famine and pestilence after Trojan War that the place seemed nearly inhibited until its later inhabitant settled. Herodotus may have access to the true link between great migrations and resulting Dark Age (as cited in Velikovsky, n.d.). Cusses of decline may be unclear. Earthquake had certainly played a major role in destruction. However, dynastic disputes, Trojan War, agricultural issues, and peasant unrest are also prominent factors that weakened Greeks. Before 1200 B.C., Anatolia faced grain scarcity which may indicate climatic change impact in Greece. Moreover, there is weak evidence of foreign invasion either by Dorians or by Sea People (Strauss, 2006, p.187). Velikovsky (n.d.) reveals that it is the absence of evidence for cessation of Mycenaean peoples that Dorian invasion is considered to be the most probable reason. However, there is rather vague indication to Dorian arrival. Dorians themselves migrated from Thrace, from Adriatic coast they entered Peloponnese, occupied Sparta, and finally became the progenitors of tribe. Minoan civilization on Crete that resembled with Mycenaean in later stages was also terminated and Dorian invasion continued to Crete. Carpenter (1966, p.16) explains that it was not Dorians who uprooted peoples from eastern and central Greece; rather it seemed that Greeks migrated and depopulated the land. V. R. d’A. Desborough emphasized that Dorians had nothing to do with Mycenaean collapse because they didn’t even enter the Peloponnese region until long after the Mycenaean civilization has already collapsed. He reveals that the abandoned places were neither occupied nor people (Dorians or other) settled there, therefore, it leads to the rejection of traditional idea that Dorian invasion caused Mycenaean collapse (as cited in Velikovsky, n.d.). Carpenter further argues that it was rather a natural happening, a trouble created by climatic change which brought continued drought and then famine to Greece mainland. These were unbearable conditions for natives that ended the long acquired prosperity and forced Mycenaean people to migrate. In order to identify the specific cause of such climatic change, Carpenter reviews the evidence and quotes G. Walter who maintains that there was no habitation after Mycenaean Age in his monograph on the island of Aegina (Carpenter, 1966, p.58). Furthermore, Desborough observes that island of Melos was deserted by Mycenaean people. However, he found no clue of Kos Island’s abandonment. Desborough concludes that this must be a severe disaster. Complete depopulation is hard to assume but there is no evidence of continuity to the Protogeometric period (157-58 as cited in Velikovsky, n.d.).Carpenter also attributes it to be a “definite instance of interruption” in continuity of a civilization (as cited in Velikovsky, n.d.). As proposed by Worlds in Collision, part II (as cited in Velikovsky, n.d.) eighth and seventh century world was going through a series of natural catastrophic happenings. There were apparitions in sky, position disturbances and change in direction of terrestrial axis that led to sudden change in climate and consequently mass migrations of populations. Cimmerians came from Russia into Asia Minor and occupied Phrygian empire. Dorians reached the Crete and Latin people were forced into Italy by new tribes. However, these were small migrating groups that scattered into different directions in the world. Minoan civilization was not destructed by Dorian arrival; it succumbed to the devastated climate. Dorians were not invaders rather they discovered an abandoned island where nobody was able or willing to defend it (Velikovsky, n.d.). Moreover, Arthur Evans also explains that each among various cultures on this island ended because of an “enormous natural paroxysms” even at its stages where Evans found upturned palaces and cities which were never built again by anyone. Evans remained perplexed about the interruption of Minoan civilization until he experienced an earthquake on Crete. He found the nature of agent that caused destruction found in the ruins of Minoan palaces. The change agent was not invading enemy, it was seismic catastrophes that caused the termination of Mycenaean civilization (as cited in Velikovsky, n.d.) The tales of disturbance in Mycenae and Ithaca present the picture of trouble in Mycenaean palaces. Approximately near 1190/1180 B.C. a major destruction stroked Greek mainland that included Pylos, Athens, Tiryns, and Mycenae. According to archeological evidence, life continued in lower towns but palaces on the citadels were destructed. This destruction transformed the Greek lifestyle; luxury goods, lavish estates, and scribes who kept the written record disappeared. Greek civilization was not finished but it survived at a lower level of riches and complexity. Same fate is experienced by citadels of Anatolia, Canaan, Cyprus, and Mesopotamia. Egypt endured the storm but it also had a huge impact. No doubt, Bronze Age was the disastrous time for the Eastern Mediterranean and Near East (Strauss, 2006, p.187). Austin and Vidal-Naquet also discuss about Greek settling on foreign shores in 8th to 6th centuries BC. Mycenaean Bronze Age abruptly ended (1200-1100 BC) after 100 years of ending Trojan War (c.1250 BC) and then started Greek Dark Ages. There is a possibility of movement of the peoples in Peloponnese, who are identified as Dorians by Greek writer; however, archaeological records have no clear impact of such movement. With this Dark Age occurred sudden depopulation which is evident from the archeological records gathered from 350-year period (as cited in Rohl, 1988).Consequently, it seemed that Trojan War may had weakened Greek people, but it has nothing to do with Dark Ages and sudden Mycenaean collapse because of approximately 100 years gap and continued life. Olivia briefly summarizes the role of Dorians in ending Bronze Age and explains that early scholar believed to establish a link between end of Mycenaean civilization and Dorian invasion. However, recent archaeological research revealed that Dorian settlements happened in more recent times. Therefore, they could have hardly any part in the catastrophe that befell the Late Helladic areas, interrupted their economic stability, and ruined the political establishment and power of Mycenaean rulers (3, as cited in Rohl, 1988). Rohl (1988) further explains that historical accounts from Greek historians which claimed short genealogies to heroic age and colonization movements as a result of Dorian invasion are rejected by modern scholarship. The two can’t be associated because Bronze Age is too remote. The texts from Homer and Hesiod, and furthermore, those of Herodotus and Thucydides are outdated when new interpretation of Bronze to Iron Age transition events became public. Desborough also agrees with it and attributes it to be a good reason to reject nearly all accounts that associate Mycenaean Greek with greater number of migrations and vulnerability of royal power (p.324). Spyridon Marinatos identified a disaster that he attributes as an overwhelming wave that came from north, swept over mountains and brought the remains of volcanic eruption(as cited in Velikovsky, n.d.). Marinatos argues that a normal earthquake alone is not sufficient to explain such a huge disaster (as cited in Velikovsky, n.d.). Velikovsky (n.d.) argues that repeated climatic change between eighth and seventh century is a well-documented fact, therefore, it need no further clarification. Migrations were caused by the devastation of residence, plagues, and changing climatic conditions which made it impossible to continue the former agricultural activities because of its dependence on earlier climatic conditions. According to Carpenter (1966) European climate that became dry and warm during eighth century returned rapidly to wet and cold again. The change under discussion is documented well in the New World (Helmut de Terra) (as cited in Velikovsky, n.d.).Natural disruption continued for most part of eighth century and culminated into a last great cosmic upheaval dated on March 23rd-687(as cited in Velikovsky, n.d.). Velikovsky (n.d.) concludes that Mycenaean civilization terminated as a consequence of eighth and seventh century’s climatic upheaval; therefore, there were no Dark Ages between Mycenaean and Ionian Age. Velikovsky (n.d.) stresses the absence of Dark Ages and attribute it to be an interruption which was caused by catastrophic climate changes and upheavals. Whether Dorian arrival contributed it or not, Mycenaean civilization ended not before the end of eighth century and there was not Dark Age chasm remained. Velikovsky (n.d.) explains that end of Mycenaean civilization and beginning of Ionian Age holds some gaps but these does not prevail to four or five centuries of darkness. He attributes it to be a gap created by migration or dislocation resulted as a consequence of natural disaster. Cities overturned with its palaces, in absence of domicile, people migrated and new arrivals replaced them. The new settlers were Dorians in case of Greece; they were the earlier inhibiters, called Heraclid Greeks who migrated northward. Accepting the break in continuity of evolution from Mycenae to Ionian, Velikovsky (n.d.) attributes the Dark Ages as unreal, it offers an explanation of resemblance in late Mycenaean and early Greek ages, and absence of literary and archeological relics found from the presumed Dark Ages. Dark Age is a presumed time period between 1100 and 800 B.C. that if better interpreted, amounts to lacking literary evidence of evolution from late Mycenaean civilization to Ionian Age. Otherwise, the Dark Ages were not as dark as presumed. Mycenaean collapse and other upheavals in the region were mainly triggered by the climatic change that led to famine, unfavorable living conditions, subsequent depopulation and great migration. The abandoned places were than occupied by Dorians who migrated and wandered on sea shores. Lack of defenders proved to be the open invitation for Dorian settlement and their attribution as invaders. Factors including, Trojan War and internal conflicts may have weakened Mycenaean but they have no or little direct impact on sudden collapse leading to Dark Age. Presumed Dark Ages were fundamentally caused by depopulation and mass migrations as a result of climatic change and unfavorable living conditions in Greece. Work Cited Carpenter, R. (1966). The discontinuity in Greek civilization. Michigan: Cambridge University Press. Hall, JM. (2006).Dark Ages 1200-700 BC. In Nigel Guy Wilson (Eds.), Encyclopedia of ancient Greece (202-204).New York, NY: Routledge. Rohl, D. (22 Feb.1988).The historicity of the Homeric poems and traditions. Retrieved from http://www.davidrohl.com/greece_essay_a_28.html Rohl, D. (1st March, 1988).The Greek colonization movement-when and why? Retrieved from http://www.davidrohl.com/greece_essay_b_32.html Strauss, B.S. (2006). Trojan War: a new history. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, Inc. Tainter, J.A. (1988).The collapse of complex societies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Velikovsky, I. (n.d.).A gap closed. In The Dark Age of Greece (IV).Retrieved from http://www.varchive.org/dag/gapp.htm Read More