Nigerian Politics as a Basis of the Case Study on African Politics - Research Paper Example

Full Department: Case Study in African Politics: Africa is the most studied continent for various reasons. Itis the second largest continent as well as the second with regards to population explosion. Africa is also highly regarded by scientists as the continent where human life originated. Despite its rich resources and scientific value the continent has been through tumultuous years. It may even be accurate to say that the continent went through all its struggles because of its presumed value. Africa went through a spate of colonialism in the late 19th to early 20th century, with the major European powers fighting to gain control over its many nations. Post Wold War II and as a result of the fall of the European powers also saw many colonies gaining independence. Most African nations, especially those colonized by the United Kingdom still however follow government policies and structure that are similar to the United Kingdom. The study of African politics is a multifaceted subject unified only by oppression and struggle. In this article we have selected Nigerian politics as a basis of the case study on African politics. We will examine its rise from colonialism through its arduous journey through civil wars, military rule, and dictatorship to its current social and political situation. To understand the nuances of Nigerian politics it is important to dwell briefly on its colonial days. Colonized Nigeria By 1914 the British had control over almost all of Nigeria except for Kamerun, which went through various sporadic invasions by the Germans and other. Prior to that Nigeria had already established itself as a prime producer of Palm oil and enjoyed elitist status among other countries in the continent having abolished the slave trade much before the rest of Africa. The prominent kingdoms in Nigeria at that time “were the Northeastern kingdom of Borno, the Hausa city-state/kingdoms of Katsina, Kano, Zaria, and Gobir in northern-central Nigeria, the Yoruba city-states/kingdoms of Ife, Oyo, and Ijebu in southwestern Nigeria, the southern kingdom of Benin, and the Igbo communities of eastern Nigeria.” (iss.co). With the abolition of slave trade they were now able to expand their trade routes and traded all the way across the Sahara. When Britain took over a Nigerian legislative council was formed with minimum African representation. The Northern and Southern territories were merged into one and native leaders still continued their rule under the supervision of the colonial leaders. This however brought about several ethnic and religious conflicts and finally in order to curb the strife a new constitution under the United Kingdom divided Nigeria into Eastern, Western and Northern regions. This was done mainly to accommodate the powerful ethnic tribes of Igbo in the east; Yoruba in the west and the Hausa and Fulani ethnic groups in the north. The rise of independent freedom fighter groups was inevitable and a federal government established in 1954 and Nigeria evolved into a self-governing federation. The political system of Nigeria at that time was that of a Federal government which governed the various autonomous regions. This was until Nigeria attained Independence in 1960. Nigeria Post- Independence Nigeria Post Independence experimented with various political systems in an attempt to maintain political stability while giving freedom for its various and diverse ethnic groups to express and exercise their rights freely. Post Colonial rule there began a struggle for power by the regions which were non-centralized or issued stateless by the British. The centralized regions had established a formal rule and because of the power of indirect rule given by the British to their native leaders, there was no conflict between the ruled and the rulers. The demarcation thus established was based on power, social and economic status. The non-centralized regions however were divided in their various political ideologies and religious and cultural practices. These regions now fought for representation and recognition now that they were released from the suppression of the indirect rule imposed by the British on them. Structuralism and Constructivism: This advent of Structuralism led to the division of the nation into three competitive and dominant groups. The north was still dominated by the Hausa and Falani; the Southwest by the Yoruba and the South East by Igbo. The reason for the conflict between these regions can be dated back to the Colonial rule and the British’s system of imposed rule and ignoring the ethnic, cultural and religious diversities of these main tribes or nations within Nigeria and disregarding their vast differences in political policies and systems. Now with the absence of that imposed rule all the suppressed diversities came to the surface. It should be noted here that the Yoruba and Igbo were the primary players in the fight for Independence from the British. They were united in their goal to divide a unified Nigeria into smaller states to prevent domination by the more conservative Northern regions of the Hausa and Falani. Therefore the fight for independence in Nigeria itself showed a division of interest with the North contesting the independence and accepting it only on the condition that it would be given a clear majority. Therefore the country gained independence without any nationalised heroes or leader. The first Coup in Nigeria against the state was in 1966. It could be attributed to the nationwide disillusionment with the corrupt and selfish politicians in power at the time. It was initiated by Major Nzeogwu and his groups of military officers. The coup resulted in the killing of the Nigerian Prime minister and Premier. The coup was quelled by the head of the Nigerian army, Major Johnson, an Igbo. He formally took power as Nigeria’s Military head of State. The reasons for the initial coup and the main instigators in the coup are still debated. The fact that the majority killed in the coup were northerners and that it was quelled by an Igbo dominated military gave vent to many doubts in the minds of northerners who staged a counter coup and as a result Hausa/Fulani of the North and Yoruba of the West had a merger of nationalist parties having patronage of central government. The countercoup had a major toll on many Igbo lives and resulted in the minorities being excluded from bureaucratic rule. Consequently Igbo separated from Nigeria and declared itself an independent state in May 1967 and called itself the “Republic of Biafra” under the leadership of Lt Colonel Emeka Ojukwu. Though Europe offered support and sympathy, the new republic was not recognized by most others in the World. The Nigerian government under General Gowan, in their bid to retake their secessionist territory launched a “police action” and thus started the civil War of Biafra War ‘as it is popularly known. The thirteen month war started with Nigeria’s attack on Garkem on ended in January 1970 costing the Nigerian army several lives and loss of Federal supplies. The Leaders of Biafra surrendered in the wake of the extreme and violent repercussions of the war. It was declared that both parties involved in the war would be considered equally victorious and the war ended with more prominence given to “rehabilitation, reconstruction, and reconciliation.” (Countrystudies, 2003). The boom in oil prices helped the Government in being able to pump in some funds for rebuilding the nation. Modernization: Competition for Goods: A nine-point government was established while the country still continued under Military rule .The eastern region was reinstated back into Nigeria and a new constitution and path for elections were set into play. Major Gowan focussed on the reorganization of the armed forces by the formation of the National Youth Services Corps. This period was also the period of vast boom in the oil industry and this further strengthened the Federal Government. Many measures were taken to modernize the nation and regain economic control from the foreign controlled economy. While it seemed that Nigeria was enjoying economic growth the ethnic minorities in the country continued to be oppressed by the Military takeover of the country. The Unitarian rule of Gowan transferred all power to the military reducing the state “to administrative units of the federal government, which in several domains made uniform laws for the country” (countrystudies, 2003.) He also tried to initiate the re-establishment of the twelve states proposed prior to the secession of Biafra. Although the country was reinstated as one, the Igbo’s who returned back to Nigeria post the Biafran War were left powerless in the new government. Igbo owned properties and business were taken over by people from other regions. The Government also introduced a new currency in Nigeria. This resulted in Biafran supplies in pre-war Nigerian currency null and void. Thus the northern region flourished more with the oil boom than the Eastern. The country’s economy was thus rife with inequality and ethnic strife one more time. This led to the Gowan government being overthrown and the country entered in political un-certainty again. Between the years 1976 to 1979 the country saw two governments to power. In this era, the northern military ruled all the economic resources and benefitted from the oil boom. The economy was possessed by the military coups which proved detrimental to the people and economy itself. The resources were divided on ethnic basis that collapsed the whole economic infrastructure of the country. Murtala Mohammad over threw Major Gowan and gained power and was later succeeded by Olusegun Obansanjo after is assassination. The country entered a phase of democracy once again in 1979 when Obasanjo ceded power to a civilian regime under Shehu Shagari. Thus, it is true that primordialism and ethnocentricism has been the causes that torn apart different groups in Nigeria on the basis of religion, tribes and ethnic influences as different individuals had different affiliations. There were two publics, one associated with ethnic tribe and traditional thinking while other was associated with colonial administration and state that would provide all civil services that tribes could not provide. Democracy was given the least importance in the whole structure that strengthened different minority groups that ultimately determined to achieve power in order to fulfil their respective objectives. So, long run historical advantages let the economic structures to be divided in disproportionate share, divided on the basis of tribe affiliation as under Obasanjo, himself of Yoruba descent, the Inspector-General of Police, the minister of internal affairs, the minister of police affairs, the director of defense intelligence service, the director of military intelligence, and the director-general of state security Service all came from Yoruba-speaking tribes. Democracy was promoted on the basis of ethnic affiliations rather than as an institution that’s why it could not undermine the religious and ethnic groups to achieve power and Nigeria kept on experiencing tensions in country that resumed cracking down the whole system. Shagari however proved to be a very corrupt politician and was even rumoured to have been re-elected for a second term only because of a politically rigged voting system. As a result this brief return to democracy was rejected by the people and Nigeria was back into Military power in 1984 when the Shagari’s regime was overthrown during military coup by General Muhammadu Buhari. Ironically this change was welcomed by the people of Nigeria who were oppressed under the corrupt rule of the Democratic leader. Nigeria was back again in the throes of corruption under Buhari and was subsequently replaced by his Chief of Army Staff Ibrahim Babangida. Buhari was overthrown by his own military council in the coup in 1986. Ibrahim Babangida: Nigeria under Babangida came with a lot of promises and he resolved to put an end to the abuse of human rights that was experienced so far in Nigeria. He also promised to re-establish a democratic government by 1990 in Nigeria. It is highly debated if the promise of human rights was ever kept but Nigeria under him did see some economic development. “Babangida's tenure was marked by a flury of political activity: he instituted the International Monetary Fund's Structural Adjustment Program (SAP) to aid in the repayment of the country's crushing international debt, which most federal revenue was dedicated to servicing” (Nigeria 101.2006). He was also responsible for creating religious tension in by making Nigeria a full fledged member of the Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC). Babangida grew increasingly unpopular because of his corrupt ways and was almost overthrown by a coup in 1990. Babangida escaped an attack on him but this coup subsequently lead to the extension of the deadline of Nigeria’s handover to a democratic government by another 2 years. The coup was led by Major Gideon Orkar however managed control over radio transmitters in Lagos and started propaganda against the Babangida government. they broadcast a vehement critique of Babangida’s government, accusing it of widespread corruption and autocratic tendencies, and they also expelled the five northernmost and predominantly Hausa-Fulani Nigerian states from the union, accusing them of seeking to perpetuate their rule at the expense of the predominantly Christian peoples of Nigeria's middle-belt citing, in particular, the political neutralization of the Langtang Mafia (Omoigui, 2007). As a result of the undercurrents and uprisings, Babangida legalized political parties and in January 24 1992, the Independent National electoral commission announced legislative as well as presidential elections. Although Babangida changed his plans and tried to ban all political parties and urged Nigerians to join the parties formed by him, the battle for Democracy was already won. In 1993 free and fair elections were held with results indicating Chief Moshood Abiola of the Social democratic party as the victor. Although it was a clear victory for Abiola, Babangida contested and tried to annul the elections by ordering the results to be held back. The frustrated Nigerians started a wave of civil disobedience especially in the South west region from where the presidential elect Abiola hailed. I July 1993 Banagida declared the National Defense and Security Council (NDSC) as an interim government and forced the NSC and SDP to join him or face fresh elections. Amidst another round of strikes and protests which brought economic development to a complete halt Babangida stepped aside as the leader of the Military regime and handed over control to Ernest Shonekan. Within 3 months of this handover in the same year General Sani Abacha seized control of the government. Chief Mashood Abioloa who was still the President elect until the military take over, declared himself President in 1994 and was imprisoned by Abacha on the grounds of treason. Abiola remained imprisoned for almost the entire Presidential term. Many Nigerians and activists such as Desmond Tutu lobbied for his release. But Abacha’s condition of renouncing his presidency to garter a release was rejected by Abiola. “Abiola died under suspicious circumstances shortly after the death of General Abacha. Moshood Abiola died on the day that he was due to be released, on July 7, 1998” (Madsen, 1999). Abacha bears the reputation of being one of the cruelest rulers experienced by Nigeria who did not think twice about using brutality and violence to curb any kind of unrest. He was also one of the most corrupt leaders and is said to have illegally appropriated over 3 billion from the State. One of the biggest controversies that surrounded his rule and eventually led to his decline was the case of Ken Saro Wiwa, a writer, artist, journalist and television producer from the Ogoni tribe. He was the forerunner of the movement that opposed the Governments exploitation of oil. Saro Wiwa was noted for his employment of non-violent methods to propagate his causes to the people. In an attempt to quell this growing unrest and the disruption to their oil exploitation the Abacha government arrested Saro Wiwa on false accusations and held a hasty trial and he along with 8 Ogoni members were hanged on November 10th, 1995. In 1996, several environmental rights organizations and various human rights attorneys brought lawsuits against Royal Dutch Shell and the Nigerian head of Shell operations. The trial finally took place in 2009 in New York, under the Alien Tort Statute, a 200 year old statute rarely used but which makes it possible to address egregious violations of human rights in US Federal Courts that have occurred outside of the US. Following repeated efforts by Shell to have the case dismissed, each of which was rejected, an out-of-court settlement was finally agreed upon in June 2009. Return to Civilian Rule: Abacha’s death gave Nigeria an opportunity to experience Civilian rule one more time under its new elect Olusegun Obasanjo, the former military head of state who had since migrated to the People’s Democratic Party. His first term was focussed on polishing Nigeria’s image in the International eye. Back home he focussed on passing some antic-corruption laws. However Obasanjo faced a lot of opposition with his party itself. He did not gain much majority from his own people the Yoruba. He was re-elected after a tumultuous election with 60% mandate in 2003. It is true that Obasanjo was a willing part of a wider Yoruba agenda to add political power to their established dominance in the bureaucratic and economic spheres. Clientelism was the reason that never let the minority groups to emerge from the ethnic footings and help the democratic institution to prevail. Salawu and Hassan, 2011 have identified that the fear of domination from other ethnic groups and lack of federal framework have been a potent threat to democracy in Nigeria. It is interesting to note at this point how political status of post-colonial nations are a result of its past and present. When viewing the Nigerian post-colonial political system with that of Ghana, one of the first among the African colonies to obtain independence. Ghana went through “five military regimes following coups d’etat in 1966, 1972, 1978, 1979 and 1981” (Forjwuor , 2009). Due to the continuous military coups d’etat in Nigeria after colonial era, the country has not seen much prosperous conditions so far that could be stated as its achievement in political terms. The conditions in current Nigeria are not far different from colonial times under United Kingdom. All we gather from the above case study is that all the problems from the state of colonialism up till now are still present due to the fact that there isn't a strong democratic institution that doesn't exclude any minority group. Nigeria went through off and on democratic governments that help develop different minority groups time after time and did not let prevail the rule of law and strong institutions. Religion is not the only reason that caused tensions in Nigeria as the recent bombings on Easter claim but the lack of political will, fear from other groups to dominate and economic destability have been the causes of tension for Nigeria so far. For the existence of a long term institutionalized democracy, the need is to make right the wrongs of ethnicity that can be achieved with a powerful democratic structure. A leadership of vision is the demand for Nigeria that does not divide people on the basis of ethnic groups or religious affiliations rather have a purpose to serve the people not as an end but through means of democracy. This case study of Nigeria gives the direction that Nigeria can overcome its tense fluctuating situations if once the democracy gets restored there in its true spirits and people are served irrespective of their ethnicity. Works Cited Nigeria: History and Politics. March 26, 2012. http://www.iss.co.za/af/profiles/nigeria/politics.html#top Countrystudies.us. The 1966 Coups, Civil War, and Gowon's Government. 2003-2011. March 26, 2012. http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/70.htm Bernard A. Forjwuor. Between Democratic Promises and Socio-Political Realities: The Challenges of Political Representation in Ghana and Nigeria . June 2009. March 26, 2012. http://etd.ohiolink.edu/send-pdf.cgi/Forjwuor%20Bernard%20A.pdf?ohiou1244222282 B. Salawu and A. O. Hassan. Ethnic Politics and its Implications for the Survival of Democracy in Nigeria. February 2011. May 12, 2012. http://www.academicjournals.org/jpapr/pdf/pdf2011/feb/salawu%20and%20hassan.pdf Major Abubakar A. Atofarati .The Nigerian Civil War, Causes, Strategies, And Lessons Learnt. 1992 . March 26,2012. http://www.africamasterweb.com/BiafranWarCauses.html    Nowa Omoigui, MD. "The Orkar Coup of April 22, 1990". Segun Toyin Dawodu. 2007. March 26,2012.. http://www.dawodu.com/omoigui8.htm "Genocide and Covert Operations in Africa 1993-1999", Wayne Madsen, Edwin Meller Press. 1999. Clean the Niger Delta. Ken Saro-Wiwa 1995. March 26, 2012. http://www.cleanthenigerdelta.org/index.php/whowaskensarowiwa Read More