Prehistory to the Early Modern World - Essay Example

?Category A Question A1. [Cultural, societal, political and religious contributions from the Dark Ages] The period known as the “Dark Ages” extends from the fall of the Roman Empire in 455 until the period of European expansion which began with the crusades in around CE 1000. The biggest change in this period was the replacement of the secular Roman Empire with a new, Germanic and largely Christian Empire initially constructed by the great Frankish king Charlemagne. Instead of one single dominant culture there was now room for many different Germanic tribes, Vikings, Celts and increasingly also Muslims to play a leading part in the development of the continent of Europe. It was an age of migrations, missionaries and raiders, in which ideas as well as many different trade goods were exchanged across huge territories. One important consequence of the ransacking of Rome by the Germanic tribe called the Vandals in CE in 455 was that Germanic laws, based on local strong leaders rather than a centralized state apparatus, now became the norm ( Fiero, 2010, p. 251). These were enhanced also by a new social order which came to be known as feudalism, based on the majority of the people being tied in to service of these same chiefs and lords. The nomadic and shifting nature of these up and coming tribal encouraged the perfection of a number of portable art forms, such as engraved weapons, fine jewelry and practical utensils, all of which were found, for example in the Sutton Hoo burial in East Anglia, England, dating from ca. 630. (Fiero, 2010, pp. 253-254). The technique known as cloisonne allowed Viking craftsmen to embed semi-precious stones and colorful enamel into their objects, and thus vividly represent their lifestyle based on hunting and adventure, with many zoomorphic motifs. The Christian religion advanced across the continent under the protection of Charlemage. New techniques of manuscript production spread from Irish and British monasteries in the north west and instead of the rather clumsy and plain Roman style, a new elegant Celtic writing style became popular. It was known as the “Carolingian minuscule” and it was a rather small, but neat and legible script, with helpful punctuation and occasional elaboration through patterns and imagery drawn from the Celtic and Viking cultures. The world famous “Book of Kells” which is an eighth century Latin gospel, finely adorned with elaborate capital letters and celtic patterns, represents the finest example of this literary innovation. The influence of this script can still be seen in modern typefaces used in printing and on computers. Christianity influenced also the creation of liturgical objects of great value such as cups and plates used for the Eucharist, and magnificently carved ivory objects. Metalwork was adapted to the Church in the form of richly adorned clasps to hold the heavy pages. The copying of texts in the scriptorium of each monastery, was a key feature of the monastery culture that grew up in this period. It resembles the modern inter library loan system with the only difference, that of course production and transport of books took much longer in those days. More practical inventions such as the stirrup for horseriding (brought in from China via the nomadic tribes sweeping across Europe), rigging gear for sails (developed by the Vikings, and iron horseshoes revolutionized transport in the Dark Ages, paving the way for the expansion which then blossomed after CE 1000. Far from being a dark and ignorant age, this period was filled with new ideas and a passion for learning. Category B. Question B2. The Epic of Gilgamesh, as the title suggests, represents the ancient literary form of the epic. This implies a sweeping historical narrative, with heroic human figures seeking out their destiny against a background of worldly conflict. There is a strong divine element in this tale, and the notion of a quest for meaning and identity is key to the narrative. The hero of the Epic of Gilgamesh has some human and some supernatural qualities: “Two thirds they made him god and one third man,” (quoted in Fiero, 2010, p. 19) Gods and goddesses play an active part in the plot, appearing in dreams or as actual characters, giving the tale a mythical quality. This story is firmly linked to the origins of the great city civilizations of Mesopotamia, and Gilgamesh embodies the virtues that were most greatly valued then: respect for the gods and the ability to build and sustain a powerful city such as Uruk which could withstand invasions from surrounding tribes. One such neighbouring people, the Babylonians, took these ancient values and codified them in to formal laws, the most renowned of which is the Hammurabi Code from around 1750 B.C.E. The laws are couched in semi-religious language, and accompanied by a narrative which implies divine inspiration: “Hammurabi, the shepherd, named by Enlil am I, … the favourite of Innana [Ishtar] am I.” (quoted in Fiero, 2010, p. 26) This shows a developing split between literary works and practical documents used to administer an increasingly complex society. Many of these heroic values continued into the Greek classical period, and this can be seen in the work of Homer, who wrote about the wars between Greece and Troy for supremacy in the Eastern Mediterranean. There is a greater emphasis on the human dimension in classical Greek literature, however, with the poetry of writers such as Sappho and Pindar bringing to the fore human emotions and human achievements, rather than portraying men and women as playthings of the gods. The discipline of philosophy is born and this is testament to an increasing desire to understand the physical world and how it fits with moral and religious thinking. In the Dark Ages, the rise of Christianity brought a new dimension to the heroic epic, and now new values of piety and self-sacrifice in service to the Church emerged. New genres such as hymns to express praise of God, and chronicles to recount his doings in the world became popular, and an important contribution at this time is an increased use of symbols to convey deep religious concepts such as the cross, which refers to salvation, through the crucifixion of Christ. Renaissance literature is remarkable in that it combines the substance of many classical works within new literary forms which are geared to the increasingly complex and urbanised world of the late middle ages. One of its greatest works, Machiavelli’s The Prince distils some of the true Christian values out of an increasingly corrupt Christian Church, and merges them with ancient virtues from Greek and Roman antiquity. He drew parallels between current politics in Italy of the fifteenth century and the tribulations of the declining Roman Empire, and this heralded a new age of critical appreciation of different philosophies. Drawing out lessons from the past, his work informs politicians on practical solutions to military challenges, forms of government, and the many temptations which usually accompany the wielding of power in society. The examples above show how each civilization takes what it needs from the past and transforms ideas and styles to suit changing circumstances. Reference Fiero, Gloria. The Humanistic Tradition: Prehistory to the Early Modern World, sixth edition. New York: McGraw Hill, 2010. Read More