Young College Female Students in early 1960 to 1963 - Research Paper Example

?Running head: FEMALE EDUCATION Young College Female in early 1960 to 1963 Insert Insert Grade Insert October 26, 2011 Young College Female Students in early 1960 to 1963 1. Introduction Equitable education is essential for the overall development of societies and yet that some sections of the population were marginalized over a long period. It has become one of the basic needs alongside the other needs like food, shelter, and clothing. The need for education traces its roots to the ancient times with the need to read, write, and perform some arithmetic operations that were necessary for daily activities. Education enables individuals to understand different aspects of life in order to lead a positive way of life. It determines career and enables an individual to earn a living. Education at a higher level involves a form of training that equips individuals with knowledge and skills that can be used in different production practices. It helps individual develop a profession. It is a tool used to empower women and the marginalized groups. Education enables individuals to understand their rights and the roles that they should play in the society. Societies comprise different categories of individuals some of which are marginalized. Females and the minority groups have been the subjects of such forms of discrimination in the societies in the past. Education is essential in preventing and managing such kinds of discrimination. Access to education is affected by different social and economic factors. The financial status of an individual may deny one access to higher education that is quite expensive in most countries. The social factors like the culture that prevails in a given society may also influence access to education. In the olden times, more values were given to the males as compared to the females. In such cultures, females were not allowed access to meaningful education. The females were arguably destined to marriage and it was considered meaningless giving them higher formal education. This practice was witnessed in different parts of the world up to the twentieth century. The availability of the learning facilities is also another factor. Proximity to the educational centers can affect an individual’s access to education. Education saw significant developments across the globe over the last century. It was observed that the number of students enrolled in tertiary colleges in the world increased over two hundred times from 500,000 students in 1900 to over 100 million in 2000.1 The proportion of female enrollment has also increased considerably in the recent decades. Various initiatives have been established in different countries aimed at empowering women and other disadvantaged individuals in the society. Various women activists have emerged to fight discrimination against women through promoting education of the girl child. The modern family planning methods have also enabled females to carry on with their education beyond high school. In the older days, women got married and were in the family way at their early twenties- mostly before college education. Thus, the enrollment of female students in institutions of higher learning changed significantly from the last half of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century. Similarly, the enrollment of females in the colleges in the mid twentieth century is significantly different from the current women enrolment in colleges across the globe. This paper focuses on the college enrollment of female students in the United States in the early 1960 to 1963. The pattern of female enrollment that was seen before this period as well as the patterns that have been seen in the following period is also examined. The paper also focuses on the factors that could have contributed to the changes observed in the enrollment patterns. Thesis statement Despite the difficulties that the activists have encountered in the reform movements, female education has improved over the last decades with the female enrollment in the institutions of higher learning equalizing or even surpassing that of their male counterparts. Much of these developments were witnessed in the early 1960s though the movements began a little early. 2. The importance of female education Education plays a significant role in promoting all aspects of development in a given society; social, political and economic development. However, these objectives of education are achieved if there is no gender inequality in the access of education. Education should be aimed at transforming a society by creating a generation of civilized individuals. Education has the fundamental aim of imparting knowledge in an individual that can be used in promoting these different types of development2. In the social aspect, education equips one with knowledge necessary for physical, mental, and social growth developments. It is very necessary for healthy growth and development as it improves an individual’s understanding of the healthy eating habits. The individual is also able to observe hygienic conditions that are necessary for good health. This is particularly important for the females in the household. It has been observed that ‘gender inequality in education and access to resources may prevent a reduction of child mortality, of fertility, and an expansion of education of the next generation’3. Education helps individuals to develop into respectable and responsible members of the society. An individual learns of his roles and responsibilities and how to interact with different people. One gets to understand and acknowledge the diversity that exists among different people in the societal setting. A good code of conduct can be developed through education. Education for both genders is very essential in poverty eradication to enhance economic development.4 The elementary education involves imparting basic knowledge and skills like reading and writing. At the earlier stages, an individual may be able to identify the lines of interest in which he/she could excel. One then makes a career decision and further education provides training in the fields of interest. College education provides an individual with the technical competency needed in various fields in the current world. Thus, education enables one to set life goals and develop profession or career that can enable him earn a living. The society will also benefit as the level of expertise needed for different life operations are readily available. Education also contributes towards political development in the society. This is particularly important for the individuals that have been marginalized like females in the society. Education enables the females to understand their rights and roles in the society. The females are also enlightened on the procedures that can be followed in the event that these rights are violated. Education has been used in the US military to reduce cases of sexual assault of females in the US Navy.5 In the earlier times, women were denied various fundamental rights like property ownership. They were also given little chances to assume political responsibilities. However, with increased girl-child education, there is a significant increase in the number of female politicians and political activities. The females and other marginalized groups like the disabled currently have a share of political roles in many governments across the globe. In general, education enables a human being to derive meaning out of life by cultivating the ‘being’ in him. It goes far beyond mere training of an individual’s mind like acquisition of skills. Instead, it cultivates both knowledge and efficiency that defines the complete human roles in life. 3. Female education in the earlier times Women have historically had few legal rights as compared to the males in the society. The women have often been marginalized and allowed little access to employment opportunities and neither were they allowed to develop on their careers appropriately. In the ancient times, women were valued for procreation. The women were considered inferior to men in the society6. The position that they held in the society was closely attached to their motherly roles and servant rather than companions to their husbands. Women were categorized as children and were not allowed to contribute towards any decision-making process within the family or in the society. The man was the head of the household and the overall final decision-maker. The females suffered discrimination in other areas as well. They were not allowed to own property and they had very little freedom in their married life, always being submissive to the husband. In general, a lot of preference was given to a male child as compared to a female child.7 Women were mainly discriminated due to their physical and physiological nature as well as misconceived idea about their mental ability. Firstly, the females were considered naturally weak and unable to take on heavy duties that required a lot of energy.8 As such, the men embarked on heavier duties to fetch for a living as the women were assigned light roles at home. This began the females’ attachment to domestic chores. Washing clothes, taking care of children, or caring for the domestic animals were the roles left to women as men went out hunting in the wilderness. This perception was extended to the roles that needed skills. Women were considered incapable of performing roles that required development of extensive skills. Secondly, women have the biological role of giving birth and this has been considered their main role in the society.9 This affected the position of women in the society largely. In these earlier times, the birth control practices had not been put in place and neither was the practice recommended. This is different from the current situation in which family planning practices are common. The female children that were brought up in such settings also understood that their roles were to be confined to the home environment. They learned the domestic chores like cooking, washing, and cleaning as they observed their future matrimonial home as the only destination. As a result, even in the cases that females were allowed access to education, they strove to excel in the elementary stages and decline in the advanced level of learning. Some studies conducted in the 1960s indicated that females performed better in their lower grades as compared to the performance at high school level.10 It appears that the females concentrated on their studies in the early education but lost concentration at the later stages owing to the fact that the further education would not take them anywhere other than matrimonial home. The discrimination extended to formal education in which girls were given secondary preference in education. This was common in the colonial times in America when females were allowed little access to basic education. They could only access higher levels of education when men were in vacation. These aspects of discrimination led to women initiatives that began as early as the second half of the eighteenth century that advocated for improved access to education by females. The female’s access to education began to improve between 1780 and 1870.11 Since then, various developments have been seen that have tried to empower women in the society and the enrollment patterns have changed significantly. Currently, the family planning practices enable women to plan for the number of children they can rear as well as when to have the children.12 There are also legal provisions in some countries that allow for abortion as a way of family planning. Female enrollment in college education has changed significantly from the situation that was witnessed in the colonial America. The proportion of female students increased from one fifth in 1870 to one third in 1900.13 This was attributed to the initiatives aimed at empowering women in the society and the increased number of universities and colleges. 4. The enrollment of female students in colleges in the early 1960 to 1963 The United States has several Universities and colleges some of which were established in the colonial times. There are institutions for higher learning that admit both female and male students. Similarly, there are institutions that admit individuals of a particular sex. The number of female students has increased considerably in the past and most of the institutions of higher learning currently enroll more females than males. Women colleges involve more than the mere majority of the female students. The colleges have increased in the recent decades and have dominant enrollment of female students over male students.14 The fight to empower women in the society increased considerably in the nineteenth century. It was noted that men had increased access to education while females had decreasing access to these institutions of higher learning. In effect, various colleges were developed in the nineteenth century that admitted females and allowed little or no admission for male students. The individuals that fought for the establishment of such colleges believed in the intellectual ability of the women and that they could have significant contribution towards development initiatives in the society. The early 1960s saw the developments of different women initiatives that are still applicable to this date. This period marked the major liberation of women from their traditional roles though the move had been initiated some decades before this period.15 One concept that was developed at the time is consciousness-raising. In the initiative, women shared their personal experiences through discussion, self-education, and awareness.16 The women came to learn that their powerlessness in the society contributed greatly to the scenario in which they totally or partially neglected in most of the societal functions. The discussions enabled the women to realize that they should develop and exercise their own authorities and not rely on the male professionals as before.17 The enrollment of the male students was still higher than that of the female students by 1960 in the colleges in the United States. It was observed that there were 1.6 males for every female graduating from four-year colleges in the US in 1960 whereas there were 1.55 males for every female for the undergraduate students.18 Two significant developments were observed in women education in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Firstly, there was a significant increase in the female enrollment in the colleges in the US. The females accounted for 35.0% of the total college graduates in the United States in 1960.19 By 1961, the female students accounted for 38 percent of the total college enrollment in the country20. The figure was changing considerably and the females’ proportion would outweigh the male’s proportion in the subsequent decades. Secondly, it was also observed that the number of colleges had increased remarkably. Even though there are varying figures provided by the historians, it is evident that there were over 200 women colleges in the United States by the early 1960s.21 One of the women colleges that were established earlier in the United States is Vassar College. Founded in 1861, the college offers liberal arts and there is limited admission of male students. It was, and still remains, a residential college and is highly selective on the students who join the college for the programs.22 The college is situated in the Hudson Valley, Poughkeepsie, some 75 miles from New York City. The college admits students from both public and private high schools with priority given to the public schools. Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts was another women college that was established in the following decade. It has been noted that the individuals that advocated for the rights of women in the society contributed greatly towards the establishment of the institutions. Thus, women colleges had set certain goals to be met. One of the goals was to promote teacher training among the females.23 This led to the development and growth for public education. The other aim of the colleges was to promote religious and health education. It has been pointed out that education enlightens an individual who is then able to understand the required living conditions that are necessary for good health. This explains why it was necessary to let the women access higher education that was only accessible by men. The colleges were also established to provide the women with the best opportunities to cultivate their intellectual abilities that could be used in promoting different aspects of development in the society. This was particular with the two colleges namely Smith College and Vassar College. The founders of these colleges wanted to ensure the learning facilities that were available in the colleges for young men in their colleges were also made available for the females to enable the latter to use their intellectual abilities appropriately. The female students encountered a different environment in most of the women colleges. The fight for liberation continued even into the colleges. Some of the colleges offered liberal arts and actively advocated for the rights and freedom for women and other marginalized groups of people. This was evident in the other activities that were even supported by the administration of such institutions. Such a scenario was witnessed at Vassar College in 1963. Civil rights activists in the South were planning a strike against the operations of some business organization in the country. The students in Vassar College also planned to join hand in the strike and demonstrate in the streets of Poughkeepsie, where the college is located. This move by the students at Vassar College was supported by the then president of the college who personally took part in the demonstration.24 5. Factors that led to the increased rate of enrollment The enrollment of females in colleges in the 1960s was influenced by several factors that occurred during the Second World War. The early 1960s marked the beginning of the liberation of women from their perceived roles in the society. This resulted from the number of females that had risen in the academic institutions and other government agencies in the 1940s and 1950s. The female academician and government officials advocated for the rights of the girl child to education and equal opportunities of college education for both males and females. These were also the policies of the civil rights movements witnessed in the 1950s and early 1960s. The period of the Second World War saw a reduction in the male enrollment in the American colleges and a reduction in the number of male faculties as well. The males were most likely required to provide the logistic support in the ongoing war and this gave the females an opportunity for increased enrollments. The females in the women colleges and the coeducational institutions had the opportunity to pursue the fields that were perceived to be for the male student.25 They were recruited into the science fields like Engineering and medicine that were dominated by males in the earlier times. At the same time, female scholars were also recruited to the college graduate departments in some of the colleges. The staff at these colleges developed a proper curriculum for the undergraduate students that would meet the standards established in the male colleges, with an emphasis on the ‘masculine’ fields. Thus, when the men returned from the war and filled the academic institutions, the women’s colleges had developed a good curriculum and provided a good alternative for the displaced female students. The women’s colleges were already providing science as was witnessed at Vassar in the 1940s.26 The Food and Drug Administration legalized the use of oral contraceptives in 1960 and advocated for a free environment for the young women to obtain these pills. This changed career plans and objectives of the female students and their ages at marriage. The pills lowered the cost of higher education for the females since they could manage the unwanted pregnancies that would deter their education.27 The women were freed from caring for unwanted children.28 This also came at a time when overpopulation was considered new social issue in the country. 6. Oppositions to establishment of women colleges The attempts by volunteer reformers to advocate for women colleges met serious opposition from academic professionals of the time. The establishment of the women colleges was regarded as unwise investment that would culminate into huge losses to the members of the public. It was not considered an appropriate effort in promoting the value of education in the society. It was believed that women could not be provided equal education to the men in the society. This was the observation of the senior academicians like the then president of Harvard College, Charles Eliot. The president had opposing views about the establishment of the female colleges. Firstly, he argued that the women’s intelligence could not compare to that of men and thus it was pointless subjecting them to equal educational opportunities. Eliot advised that the women colleges were then supposed to embark on a type of education that was not harmful to the bodily functions of the women and that it was not necessary to make comparisons of women and men in terms of the intellectual capacities. The president asserted that since there is a significant difference in the bodily capacities of men and women, it was likely that there was a similar margin in the intellectual capacities of the opposite genders.29 In other words, the president was suggesting that there should be a difference between the curriculum in the colleges for women and those for men, a statement that was strongly opposed by the female academicians of the time. The other argument by Eliot was that women were not able to withstand the challenges of higher education. He argued that college education involved heavy academic workload that could not be managed by female students. This would, arguably, distort their brains and lead to mental disorder.30 Further, if they managed the college education then the negative impacts would be reflected in the health and wellbeing of their offspring who would be sickly. In these earlier times, girls were considered ‘emotional, lacking in initiative, skills, bravery, competence, and independence.31 The colleges were also opposed, as they would lead to reduced marriages and reduction in family sizes. It was argued that educated women would take on jobs and were less likely to be married and bear children for their husbands. Even though these arguments were strongly opposed by the female founders of the women colleges, they seemed to have effects on the curriculum developments in these colleges. For a considerably long period, the colleges offered programs that were quite different from the programs offered in men’s colleges. 7. The female enrollment after 1963 The trend that was witnessed early continued after the 1960s with increased enrollment in colleges and increased establishment of women and coeducational colleges. By the 1990s, the female enrollment in higher learning institutions was at parity with that of the males with both of them completing their degrees at similar rates.32 The proportion of the women in the colleges increased and later outnumbered men in the following decades. In general, the proportion of female students in colleges has increased steadily since the 1950s.33 Similarly, women continued to show interest in the male-dominated fields. There attention shifted gradually from the traditional teaching profession to the perceived masculine careers like engineering, law, or business.34 8. Conclusion The importance of education to the members of the society including the females is evidenced and this justifies the fight for gender equality that has been witnessed in the US. The roles of women in the society have changed considerably over the years. Women were traditionally attached to the domestic chores and were not allowed access to other opportunities like education to improve their career. It was considered meaningless to have them develop their careers and neither were they considered capable of achieving such goals. Due to this wrong perception, various women activists started to fight for gender equality to uphold the rights of the women. However, the movements faced serious oppositions from the male scholars of that time who influenced the opinions of the public. Eventually, the various women movements succeeded in ensuring the establishment of women colleges and providing equal access to all the programs. It was also noted that females had the intellectual capacity to pursue the academic programs that were considered masculine. The introduction of oral pills in the 1960s also contributed to increased female enrollment in colleges and delayed marriages. Females could now plan when to have the children and the size of the family that she can manage properly. The trends after the 1960s indicate generally increasing patterns for the female enrollment in the colleges in the United States. There are occasional drops like during the Vietnam War when more males took to colleges to escape war. Females have continued to be attracted to the science programs that were initially dominated by the men. 9. Recommendations The fight to promote female education to the higher levels has succeeded and the current enrollment of the female students outnumbers the male students in the universities and colleges in the United States and most other industrial countries. As such, there is no need to establish other women colleges. It has emerged that the females are capable of pursuing academic programs similar to the males. Thus, equal opportunities need to be provided to both the female and male students. The colleges should provide good interactive platforms of males and females that contribute towards positive social developments in the individuals. There are also other important aspects establishing institutions that admit both males and females. In this regard, all the women colleges should be converted to coeducational centers with both genders having equitable access to the learning institutions. The government should support the fight to promote gender equality not only in education but in other sectors as well in order to realize meaningful growth and development. Bibliography Bornstein, Rita. Education of women: Protection or Liberation? Educational Leadership 36(5) (1979). 331-337 Carlisle, Rodney P. and Golson, J. Geoffrey. America in Revolt during the 1960s and 1970s. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. (2007). Eisenmann, Linda. Historical dictionary of women’s education in the United States. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. 1998. Francis, David R. Why Do women Outnumber Men in College? The National Bureau of Economic Research, 2011. http://www.nber.org/digest/jan07/w12139.html (accessed 26 October 2011). Goldin, Claudia and Katz, Lawrentz F. The Power of the Pill: Oral Contraceptives and Women’s Career and Marriage Decisions, Journal of Political Economy, fall 2001 http://www.econ.cam.ac.uk/contacts/marshlec/2002lecture2.pdf (accessed 26 October 2011). Harwarth, Irene. Women's Colleges in the United States: History, Issues, & Challenges. DIANE Publishing. 1997 Jacobs, Jerry A. Gender inequality and higher education, Annual review of sociology 22; 153-85. 1996. Klasen, Stephan. Does Gender Inequality Reduce Growth and Development? Evidence from Cross-Country Regressions, 1999 http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENDER/Resources/wp7.pdf Kolodny, Kelly Women’s Education in the United States 1780–1840. EDUCATIONAL STUDIES, 46(1): 134–138, 2010. Ebscohost MacRae, Nancy K. Entering a Different World, 1963. http://150.vassar.edu/memories/year-1963/entering-a-different-world.html (accessed 26 October 2011). Oak, Manali. Importance of education to youths. 2001. http://www.buzzle.com/articles/importance-of-education-to-youths.html (accessed 26 October 2011). Terry J Rau, Evaluation of a Sexual Assault Education/Prevention Program for Female U.S. Navy Personnel MILITARY MEDICINE, 176(10); 1178-1182, (2011). Ebscohost. Schofer, Evan and Meyer, John W. The Worldwide Expansion of Higher Education in the Twentieth Century. American Sociological Review, Vol.70, 2005; p.898-920. http://www.ntpu.edu.tw/social/upload/P_820100307132656.pdf (accessed 26 October 2011). Women’s International Center. Women’s History in America, 1995. http://www.wic.org/misc/history.htm (accessed 26 October 2011). Zawadi Africa. Universities and Colleges, 2010. http://www.zawadiafrica.org/html/vassar_college.html (accessed 26 October 2011). Read More