Current and Future Developments of Genetic Engineering - Essay Example

Small Business Management Customer Inserts His/Her Name Customer Inserts Grade Course Customer Inserts Tutor’s Name 23rd February, 2011. Introduction The field of science is dominated by many technologies and theories that explain on life and that help us demystify some of the complex questions on human or animal life. The field of genetics is another scientific field that helps us understand human and animal life especially as it concerns relationships and how genetics is related to inheritance. The field of genetics is quite wide and in the recent years it has been major talk shop for all kinds of people including research scientists, politicians, farmers and many other people. Genetic engineering involves the genetic modification of an organism genetic make up under circumstances that do not usually occur naturally to produce a genetically modified organism (Michels, 2002). Genetics has evolved over the years to what it is today, what it today where there are claims that this technology could be used in cloning human beings due to genetically modified crops and animals which have been produced. This research paper is going to look in depth into genetic and methods applied in genetic engineering to manipulate human and animal genes. Genetic engineering Genetic engineering is mainly involved with genetics, whereby the genetic make-up of an organism is altered by introducing a hereditary material from outside environment which is then fused with the host or a cell in the host body system. The foreign material that is fused with the host ends up resulting in new amalgamations of heritable genetic material by use of recombinant nucleic acid (RNA). Genetic fusing is done either through species of the same kind or by fusing genes from different species. When genes from the same species are fused the resulting organism is known as cisgenic, while if fusing is done by two different organisms the resulting organism is known as transgenic. Another common form of genetic engineering involves the removal of genetic material from a target organism resulting in a knock out organism (Lindee, 2008). The process of genetic engineering involves several processes which include; isolating the gene, making genetic constructs, gene targeting, transformation, selection, regeneration and confirmation. Genetic engineering as a form of genetic manipulation of recombinant DNA (rDNA), foreign material is fused indirectly through a vector system or directly by use of techniques like micro-injection, macro-injection and micro-encapsulation techniques. Most scientists do consider stem cell research and cloning as closely related to genetic engineering, but they do contend that breeding and mutagenesis cannot be considered as genetic engineering. The first genetic engineering to occur was done of bacterium whereby scientists inserted antibiotic resistance genes into the plasmid of an Ecoli bacterium. This process requires the search for a required gene before it is cut from the DNA of an organism using enzymes such as restriction endonucleases which leave the gene with overlapping sections called sticky ends. Through an indirect process of fusing, a vector molecule like a bacterial plasmid is opened up using restrictive enzymes leaving sticky ends. The new gene is joined into the plasmid using sticky ends through a process known as annealation and sealed in place by another enzyme called DNA ligase. Then the recombinant (genetically modified) plasmid is inserted into a bacterial cell in a process known as transformation. It is then replicated whenever the bacterial cell replicates bringing into being the manufacture of a new protein. Elements of Genetic Engineering Genetic engineering is a complex field which combines a lot of technological and scientific research knowledge to come up with superior organisms but that can resist diseases or withstand certain conditions. Genetic engineering involves the some of these activities listed below: Isolating the Gene This is the first step in the creation of recombinant DNA (rDNA); it involves isolating a gene that is to be used in insertion into a genetically modified organism is chosen. The process of isolation involves the multiplication of the gene using a process known as polymerase chain reaction. Polymerase Chain reaction is a process used in amplification of genes to obtain multiple copies of a DNA sequence; it is normally used in DNA cloning. In most case the chosen gene or the donor’s organism genome systems have been well studied and their records are present in a genetic library. Genetic libraries are used to store gene copies for certain organism’s genome and artificially synthesised genes. Most genes are transferred into plants to be used to fight against insects or herbicides, however in animal and human beings the process is used in producing growth genes (Setlow, 2004). Isolation of a gene as it is used in recombinant DNA technology involves slicing the desired DNA segment before it is introduced into a vector like a plasmid. The process is aided by a certain bacterial enzyme referred to as restriction enzymes or endonucleases. The restriction enzymes cleaves DNA strand at a specific site called recognition sequence or restriction site. But at times the restriction sequence occurs on both strands in a reverse sequence; such segment of DNA with identical sequence but in the opposite direction is called a palindrome. A palindrome is made up of double stranded DNA that reads the same backwards or forwards across the double strand. Gene constructs This is the next critical step in executing the fusion of a gene with other elements for it to work properly during the period it is inserted into a genetically modified organism. The main essence of the gene construct stage is to monitor the behaviour of the gene by measuring its effectiveness or expression. In this process there is usually a region for a terminator and promoter also a selectable marker should be present in the process. The promoter region is used in initiating the process of the gene transcription, for instance the promoter is used in describing the levels and the extents to which a gene can have heritable qualities similar to another gene (Spangenburg, 2004). A terminator region is used in terminating the transcription. A selectable marker gene in most cases is used in conferring antibiotic resistance to an organism where the gene is going to be expressed in. A selectable marker gene is also used in determining which types of genes are transformed in the new gene (Hodge, 2009). Gene constructs are typically made from rDNA processes which include; restriction digests ligations and molecular cloning. Restriction digest involves the process of cleaving DNA molecules at specific sites. Restrictions digests is done to ensure that DNA fragments that contain specific sequence for instance have he same size or have the desired sequence in terms of position within the same fragment. Gene targeting This is a common form of genetic engineering process which involves inserting a new genetic material into a host genome at a random sequence. This procedure is usually used in targeting specific changes to an internal gene using a process known as homologous recombination. The process of gene targeting is different from other techniques which allow new genetic material to be inserted at specific locations within the host genome and terminating internal genes. Gene targeting rarely occurs frequently and it can only be improved by use of engineered nucleus. Engineered nucleus is used to introduce mutations to endogenous genes that are used in generating knock out genes. Transformation The process of transformation occurs after a foreign DNA has been induced into a foreign organism’s genome. More than 1% of bacteria can take up foreign DNA. This is typically done by a process of stressing bacteria with an electric shock can make the cell membrane permeable to DNA that may then incorporate into their genome or survive as an extrachromosomal DNA. The process of inserting DNA into cells of animals or other organism is done using microinjection technique; the cells injected into will then transform the cells. Transformation is common in plants and animals where processes like electropolation is used in making animals cells permeable to plasmid DNA. Then the DNA will be incorporated into the plant or animal genome, however this process is susceptible to errors due to damages caused to the cell membrane and therefore it has low efficiency levels. Other methods that can be used in this process include laboratory injection of a gene using a fine needle (Lindee, 2008). Selection The process of selection is used in monitoring the cells which have been transformed by using a selectable marker. A selectable marker is a quality or gene used in measuring if there were any changes to he cells injected by foreign genes. The selectable marker’s main quality is to differentiate between transformed and untransformed genes, if a cell has been successfully been transformed it will contain the selectable marker gene (Spangenburg, 2004). Within the selection process, DNA probing can be used in targeting a specific gene once DNA has been injected into a cell of a specific organism. The DNA will stick to that specific gene and later on in the life of the mature plant or animal that selectable marker gene can be removed. Regeneration Regeneration process involves the growing of an organism from a single transformed cell through several processes including tissues culture. As for bacteria since it is only one cell and it reproduces by itself thus regeneration is not necessary in their case. For plants there exists some requirements necessary for them to regenerate and one of such requirements is that there must be presence of a transgene in an adult plant. Regeneration is animals is done by ensuring that the DNA is present in the embryonic stem cells, thus when the animal produces an offspring it will be screened for the presence of that gene (Setlow, 2004). Off springs of an animal that will be injected with a gene in order to transform cells of that organism will display presence of that gene in their cells. But once the offspring mate with other animals they will produce a homozygous animal. For instance it will produce a pure breed that is similar to the offspring. Confirmation This is the last stage in the process of genetic engineering; it involves the uses of tests to ascertain for sure that the gene is expressed and functions correctly. Most importantly is that the organism’s offspring are tested to the gene trait can be inherited and it follows the correct inheritance patterns. The confirmation process is done using tests such as Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), Southern Blots and Bioassays. Confirmation is very important in the field of genetic engineering, since it is used as a marker of a successful implementation f the process of injecting genes into the cells of an organism. Cloning Genetic engineering is a process that involves many techniques and methods but the most commonly used and recognised method is cloning. Cloning can be referred as the process of inserting foreign gene(s) into another organism. Cloning makes use of recombinant DNA technology by cutting a known DNA sequence and fusing it with another organism’s leading to the alteration of the organism’s genotype. The process of cloning is artificially conducted as compared to breeding and mutagenesis. The process of cloning involves the joining cut open ends of genes called sticky ends using enzymes such as ligase (Michels, 2002). Ligase is efficient in joining together sticky ends while a plasmid which contains a cloned gene is called a chimera. A chimera is usually inserted into a host using various methods, Vectors (foreign organism) carrying the inserted genes must be incorporated into living cells for them to be expressed or replicated. There are several methods used in penetrating the cell membrane during the process of cloning, these processes must be conducted within a controlled environment like a laboratory. Some of the methods used in sending genes across the cell membrane include; heat shock, electroporation, viral infection, gene gun, microinjection and liposome (Hodge, 2009). The process of heat shock makes use of calcium chloride whereby the chimera plasmids are inserted into a solution of cold calcium chloride together with the real bacteria. Upon heating the solution the to a temperature of 42°C for period of between 2-5 minutes, the bacterial membranes become permeable and allow the plasmid chimeras to enter the cell. By using electroporation, the host cells are subjected to high voltages which make the cell membrane to become permeable allowing the foreign genes to enter into the cell. A gene gun is equipment used in inserting foreign genes into a host cell by coating gold particles with foreign DNA before firing them into the host cell. The process of microinjection is a laboratory procedure whereby a cell is held in place by a pipette while the foreign DNA is injected into the nucleus using a fine needle (Herring, 2006). The liposome procedure is done using a liposome, whereby the foreign genes are bound inside small vesicles. The liposome fuse with the cell membrane with the cell membrane and then they deliver the DNA into the cell nucleus. Using a viral infection, scientists could experimentally generate a genetically engineered virus. Due to the ability of viruses to attack vulnerable cells and replicate themselves a virus can then deliver a certain desired DNA into the host cell (Strachan, 2004). Current and future developments of genetic engineering Genetic engineering has been used in various fields today and there is a lot of promise in this industry. Some of the current developments of genetic engineering include agriculture, industry, research and medical field. Genetic engineering techniques have been applied widely in the field of agriculture where genes have been injected into plants to produce high quality plants that fight against pests and diseases. But the most widely used genetic engineering technology is that of production of GMO foods which will help farmers in increasing yields since these crops are able to fight against qualities of fighting pests and diseases (Hodge, 2009). For instance, transgenic plants have been used in production of vaccines because of genetic technologies. Industrial uses of genetic engineering include creation of a biological factory capable of producing enzymes and proteins. These industrial factories are used in producing bacteria and yeast used in producing medicines such s insulin, vaccines or human growth hormones. In the medical field though being closely related to research, genetic engineering technologies have been employed in human medicine. For example, pigs can be chosen as transgenic animals and their organs could be used in heart or kidney transplants due to the similar of their organs to that of human beings (Spangenburg, 2004). Moreover the field of genetic engineering has been widely applied in research, the subject of cloning and stem cell research has been widely researched than applied. Research in genetic engineering is a growing field and will soon play a major role in our daily lives. A lot of research has been conducted in this field to an extent that several animals have been cloned out of genetic engineering technologies. Future developments in the field of genetics include; possibility of fighting hunger due to increased crop yields, cloning and stem cell research that will be able to fight incurable diseases like cancer, Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s. Genetic engineering could in future affect breeding since human beings will have the possibility of choosing prospective traits for their children or it could even be used in animals to produce superior animal breeds (Strachan, 2004). In future, genetics might spur the cosmetic surgery industry since body parts and implants will be made available easily by use of genetic modification technologies. Ethical considerations of genetics The issue of genetic engineering and its purpose in the human world has raised a lot of debate around the globe. But a lot of ethical issues have been raised concerning some genetic engineering methods and especially cloning. The possibility of genetic engineering expertise countering hunger, diseases and other problems is there but this is without some problems. Many people have raised religious concerns against cloning; citizens have questioned the motives of some scientists trying to play the role of God. They argue that these technologies violate God’s laws since the boundaries of species are fixed and readily delineated (Almond, 2003). Other criticisms have been drawn from within the scientific field; some scientists question the reliability and effectiveness of genetic engineering technologies. According to statistics, consumption of GMO foods could lead to higher incidences of diseases like cancer or Alzheimer. Cloning has been found to be susceptible to errors and it has been reduced to laboratory research or medical trial tests. For example, the first sheep to be cloned died at the age of eight years from cancer and arthritis, her death was immature compared to the life span of the sheep from she was cloned from (Almond, 2003). Genetic modification of embryos for stem cell research has raised a lot of with some arguing it would be beneficial to solving common human ailments. However most people believe that unborn embryos have a right to life just as it was intended by God in the beginning. Other people that have raised ethical queries include sports official who argue that genetic engineering could be used in preparation of genetic treatments in competitive sports like the Olympics (Herring, 2006). Thus treatments could be used to boost endurance of sports persons which will likely kill competitive sports or create undue competition in sports. Another important ethical issue that needs to be looked at is the lack of legal or social controls that are needed in controlling against errant scientists who want to use genetic engineering for their own selfish needs. Conclusion The field of genetic engineering is a wide and it covers a lot of technologies that are very important in today life. Today global life has been tough and human beings face several challenges which include; increased incidences of diseases, increased population leading to hunger and poverty. These and other problems led to the development of technologies such as genetic engineering based on natural characteristics of the life. Several technologies of genetic engineering have been developed leading to production of GMO foods, gene harvesting and other technologies all out to solve problems faced by human beings (Lindee, 2008). However with the rapid evolution of the genetic engineering field several ethical questions have been raised that need to be addressed before the technology has been fully accepted by global citizens. References Almond, B. and Parker, M., 2003. Ethical issues in the new genetics: are genes us?. Manchester: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. Herring, Y. M., 2006. Genetic engineering. New York, NY: Greenwood Publishing Group. Hodge, R., 2009. Genetic engineering: manipulating the mechanisms of life. Austin, TX: Infobase Publishing. Lindee, S., 2008. Moments of Truth in Genetic Medicine. Chicago, IL: JHU Press. Michels, C., 2002. Genetic techniques for biological research: a case study approach. Atlanta, GA: John Wiley and Sons. Setlow, J., 2004. Genetic engineering: principles and methods. Boston, MA: Springer. Spangenburg, R., Moser, K. and Moser, D., 2004. Genetic engineering. London: Marshall Cavendish. Strachan, T. and Read, A., 2004. Human molecular genetics 3.Los angles, CA: Garland Science. Read More