The Ability of an Organisms Body System to Function Properly - Coursework Example

INTRODUCTION Health is the ability of an organism’s body system to function properly; that is, the aspects of the whole body are working cohesively, and be it emotional, mental, spiritual, and/or physical are in good conditions. According to (Burke, 2006), Health at the varied stages of development is influenced by psychology. Over the years, clinicians have found that treatment of illness is more effective if psychological factors are well managed. They have found out treating the physical signs is futile in understanding the key reasons of ailments. Psychology is the scientific study of the functions of the mind and the behaviours in animals and in the humans. In understanding health psychology, various psychological theories have been formulated to explain human behaviour and how it is influenced by psychological, biological and social factors. Lifespan development or the human development is the process at which humans develop due to the influence of changes biologically, psychologically and psychosocially in the different stages of life (Kraus, 2008). It is important to understand these factors when dealing with issues of health as proposed by (Burke, 2006). When dealing with human development, the writer of this essay agree to the highest extent with (Kraus, 2008), (Burke, 2006) among other authors that it is important to evaluate psychological and lifespan theories to help explain changes in behaviour, health and perception at various stages of life and their influence in the transmission, diagnosis, treatment of diseases. For the purpose of expounding on how important the above issues are in understanding illnesses, the essay shall dig into the chronic disease of HIV/AIDS. THE CHRONIC DISEASE - AIDS HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus and AIDS stands for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. HIV virus can be transmitted through sexual contact between infected partners, through wounds or scarring on the vaginal lining, penis, the rectum and the vulva, and through sores in the mouth during oral sex (Ramaiah, 2008). It is also spread through needle injections used by drug user who share their injecting needles and syringes that are contaminated with infected blood, infants can be infected with the virus, during pregnancy and birth. (Ramaiah, 2008) indicates that other means of spreading includes sharing of needles and piercing items that have been used on patients already infected in hospitals, and in rites of passage like in circumcision, and people with sexually transmitted diseases are likely to be infected easily with HIV virus. The virus however, cannot be transmitted through shaking hands, using food utensils used by infected persons, sharing clothes and beddings, other public utilities like phones, toilet seats, basins, and swimming pools. HIV/AIDS once in the body, many people do not immediately know that they are infected with the virus. This is because the virus is usually under the window period. The victim is likely to experience headaches, flu and fever, enlargement of the lymph nodes, being tired in the initial stages of the virus; this stage is referred to as the asymptomatic stage (Marsico, 2010). Progression of the condition does vary from one person to the other. Once the HIV virus has won over the battle with the immune system, one gets opportunistic infections that occur after the asymptomatic stage is pneumonia, infection in the brain, malaria, excessive diarrhoea, excessive weight loss, throat yeast infections, constant coughs, and anaemia. In the final stage when the immune system is so weak and vulnerable, the body is attacked by conditions like lymphoma, Kaposi sarcoma, tuberculosis among others (Ramaiah, 2008). There are various treatments for HIV. After testing HIV/AIDS virus by use of the RNA test, the antibody test and the combination test, there are treatments that can be given to infected patients. (Ramaiah, 2008) in collaboration with research done agree the prophylaxes that are used to treat the virus are majorly composed of inhibitors - the reverse transcriptase inhibitor. This medication helps in inhibiting the ability of the virus to replicate itself, the protease inhibitors, which help in interrupting replication of the virus in the late stages for the virus progression, thus stopping formation of new viral cells. Fusion and entry inhibitors, they are used to prevent the virus to enter the blood cells and integrase inhibitors, which help in stopping the genes of the HIV/AIDS from incorporating into the DNA cells of humans (Ramaiah, 2008). The drugs have side effects like the pancreas being inflamed, body rash, toxifying the liver, reduction in the numbers of white and red blood cells. (Falvo, 2010)Other complications include increase in cholesterol levels, damage to the nerves that causes a lot of pain, and diabetes, complications in the gastrointestinal system, and increase of body fat tissues, and other drugs used in prevention of mother to child transmission causes permanent harm to the child. HOW HIV/AIDS AFFECTS A PERSON NEGATIVELY HIV/AIDS affects people negatively. People who have been diagnosed with HIV virus have been discriminated professionally. Most corporations and employment agencies have policies that instruct job seekers to forward their health certificates or undergo medical tests during job applications (Ramaiah, 2008). This has been more so to avoid offering work to people with chronic illnesses, disabilities and HIV virus, due to ignorance on how the disease is transmitted, and the notion that infected people cannot offer full potential or execute the skills required to the maximum due to regular visits to the clinic, or due top bad health during recurrences. Moreover, from lacking equal employment opportunities, the other negativity is that most insurance policies do not cover people with HIV virus (Santrock, 2008). Insurance companies argue that infected people will accrue so much medical bills, thus being a liability to insurance companies. These bills are so, because HIV infected people are susceptible to opportunistic infections and health complications as supported by (Hendry and Kloep, 2002). The few infected people who get the chance to be employed by employment agencies or the people who are already working and these infected persons are disintegrated and alienated by their colleagues (Burke, 2006). Every human being feels the need to be accepted and belongs to a social setting. This alienation therefore, causes the victims to become depressed in their work and is more prone to drop out of work or commit suicide especially if they are being victimized. More often than not, HIV infected persons are unable to cohesively develop social relationships like have friends, associate well with their families thus causing loneliness as indicated by (Santrock, 2008). Other social issues that they face is that uninfected people fear to have sexual relationships with infected persons, thereby making the infected people unable to marry and have families of their own. Moreover, they are unable to marry fellow infected persons due to social stigma; very few are willing to divulge their positive status (Ramaiah, 2008). Those that are lucky to marry, have the hard choice of deciding if they will have children of their own, or they would prefer to adopt (Burke, 2006). Due to fear of transmission of the virus during pregnancy, labour, delivery and post delivery, most infected couples or discordant couples prefer not to have children of their own, depriving them of the joy of parenting. HIV infected individuals are affected negatively by the disease in that due to depression and stress they undergo due to having the disease, they may be unable to eat thus exposing their immune systems to infections as supported by (Ramaiah, 2008). HOW HIV/AIDS AFFECTS A PERSON POSITIVELY HIV/AIDS can affect a person positively. In order to help eradicate and fight with opportunistic infections, an infected person is advised to engage in regular exercises and follow a good balanced diet that helps boosts the immune system. Therefore, by having the virus, it influences other people to have fuller and healthier lifestyles than they would normally have, if they were not infected (Marsico, 2010). HIV infected people globally have joined hands, formed groups, and encouraged solidarity among themselves (Santrock, 2008). This has helped immensely people who have low self-esteem issues and social insecurities to believe in themselves, and believe that they can be able to do what anyone else can. Through the disease therefore, people are able to boost their self-confidence and self worth, making them more self sufficient and independent (Burke, 2006). Nevertheless, the disease has offered job opportunities to a great number of people as implied by (Hendry and Kloep, 2002). Employment creations has been felt in the research fraternity by researchers and scientists employed to discover HIV/AIDS virus, its working in the blood system, and find its cure, HIV educators, actors in HIV/AIDS documentaries, medical personnel, nutritionists, activists among others. People, who discover that they have the virus, tend to seek spiritual and religious guidance in the hard times that they experience (Santrock, 2008). Therefore, the disease has helped people engage in spirituality thus are able to abstain from doing other vices in the society (Hendry & Kloep, 2002). HIV/AIDS have help individuals in low economic status to derive and improve their livelihoods from it. Groups formed by the infected people, involve themselves in economic ventures like fish farming, and other enterprises that help them get an extra coin to support their families, which they would otherwise not be able to (Marsico, 2010). Other poor infected people, who lack their basic needs normally, are able to benefit from their positive status, since they are easily accessible to donations of food, clothing and sometimes shelter from the government and non-governmental organizations (Burke, 2006). Through HIV/AIDS, and the fear of contracting the disease has helped individuals in the society change their risky sexual behaviour like promiscuity, unfaithfulness in marriages, prostitutions, unsafe sex, polygamy, multiple partners and promoted virtues like abstinence and faithfulness (Marsico, 2010). Moreover, due to the negative effects of the disease to the society, parents have developed good parenting techniques to their children, which helps them in making decisions and solving problems (Santrock, 2008). Infected people have embarked on advocating for behaviour change among young people, thus influencing their lives positively. APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES IN THE DIAGNOSIS, TREATMENT AND PREVENTION OF HIV/AIDS Researchers in the medical field and those studying the HIV virus have acknowledged the importance of health psychology in the prevention, diagnosis, treatment and management of the HIV virus (Weiten, 2008). There are theories that have been formulated to understand human behaviour, which is the basis in the transmission of the HIV virus among humans globally. (Santrock, 2008) presents psychological theories such as; The cognitive theory, The theory suggests that cognition and psychological processes influence the way people solve their problems, are motivated, make decisions, think and pays attention Hendry, Kloep, (2002). This theory seeks to find out how humans take in, processes, stores and retrieves information in the brain. The humanist theory of psychology. The theory is based on understanding the basic virtuousness of people. Unlike the behavioral and the cognitive theories, this theory does not focus on the behavior and mental complications or issues, and that people choose to do what they do. This theory implies that people are not only influenced by internal process but factors like environment, culture, and social issues James, (2007). Other psychological theories are social theories and environmental theories. The behavioral theory of psychology Although these roles have a role to play in diagnosis and treatment of diseases and improvement of health care, the most appropriate when handling the scourge of HIV/AIDS is the behavioral theory of psychology. This theory seeks to affirm that all human behavior is acquired through conditioning James, (2007). By understanding the behavioral theory of psychology, people are advised to change their behavior, that is, regulate promiscuity, stop having multiple sexual partners, homosexuality, avoid having unprotected sexual contact among other key behaviors that contribute to transmission of the HIV virus Weiten, (2008). This theory can help clinicians learn ways in which they can mobilize the population to adapt to new behavior or change in their behavior to help prevent new infections Kraus (2008). Behavioral theory is integral in understanding the elements of change necessary to modify or change one’s behavior Hendry, Kloep, (2002). Elements of change are the readiness of the infected and those tested negative to change the way they perceive and address sexual matters, identify barriers that will hinder change of behavior. These are factors like culture, for example traditional circumcision where one knife is used for large number of people, polygamy and peer pressure; where an individual will indulge in unsafe sex if their peers are doing it. The other elements of change are the expectation that the individual will relapse to the former behavior Weiten, (2008). This is influenced by factors like carelessness on the individual’s part, being used to having many partners than being faithful to one among other factors. Medical personnel who are conversant with this theory in relation to HIV virus are able to help the population learn about steps to take in order to accomplish change in behavior, elements of change, and ways in which an individual can be able to move through from one stage of change in behavior to the next Burke, (2006). This theory is important when dealing with the HIV virus because, mobilisers and HIV activists need to understand why people think the way they do, why would people engage in risky behavior when they know the adverse effects that will follow, why do people easily forget the dangers associated with HIV/AIDS and learn how they can motivate them to adopt healthy behaviors Weiten, (2008). As presented by (Burke, 2006) the theory is important in the fight against AIDS, by helping learn how people can be motivated to do what is good, like complying with actions that does not put them in danger of contracting the virus, addressing various needs that may help increase rates of transmission. (Sugarman, 2001) illustrates that women in low socio-economic status are in need of their basic needs like food, clothing and shelter and will engage in prostitution in order to get money to cater for these needs. By learning this, the government can help in job creation and enforcing welfare fund for the unemployed. Women who lack security are susceptible to gang rapes, which increase the chances of contracting the HIV virus. Therefore, people are advised on security measures to take and where rape victims can access prophylaxis to avoid contracting the infection Weiten, (2008). LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT THEORIES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH HIV/AIDS Lifespan development is the process at which humans develop due to the influence of changes in biology, psychologically and psychosocially in the different stages of life. Its theories influences health issues such as dealing with HIV/AIDS as described by (Santrock, 2008). The Kohlberg’s theory The theory focuses on development of morals as basis in development of behavior. Piaget’s theory The theory suggests that people are biologically made to learn and they can easily adapt new behavior through their cognitive skills, allows health activists develop new campaigns and models to help change behavior from risky sexual behavior to responsible behavior, which is integral in the fight against HIV/AIDS Hendry, Kloep (2002), The Freud’s theory. Freud implied a sequence of childhood stages influence personality. He believed that libido of the id are the factors that influence behavior. Successful completion of these stages results in personalities which are healthy, while those who do not, are fixated at that stage until the crisis is dissolved as presented by (Roeckelein, 2006) The Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development For the purpose of this discussion, we will focus on the Erik Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development. The theory suggests that in the different stages of life, personality is developed, and that each stage has its own crisis (Burke, 2006). According to the theory, the resolution of relative crisis in a particular stage influences the outcome whether positively or negatively (Santrock, 2008). The crises in these stages are geared upon achieving mental quality or failure to acquire it dependent on the resolution made (Santrock, 2008). The first stage in the Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is the trust and mistrust stage. It occurs in the first year of an infant (Hendry and Kloep, 2002). The ability of the infants to develop trust is influenced by how quality and dependable the caregiver is. A child who is able to acquire trust in this stage is able to experience safety and security in the later years. This stage gives the virtue of hope. However, Infants who fail to develop their trust due to inconsistent, emotionally deficient and rejecting guardians are usually fearful of the world in general, since they view it as unpredictable and cannot be depended on; this stage gives the virtue of hope (Salkind, 2004). The stage that follows is the autonomy versus doubt and shame. This stage happens in early childhood, and involves development of personal control in children like avoiding to wet themselves, make choices on what to eat, games to play, clothes to wear among other activities (Kraus, 2008).Guardians who provide secure environment for the child to experiment, persuades, compliments them, and applaud progress, such a child develops autonomy. However, a guardian who is restrictive of a child doing a task, criticizing and reprimanding them, makes a child feel doubtful, ashamed, and inadequate; this stage gives the virtue of will (Weiten, 2008). The third stage in this theory is the initiative versus guilt. The theory implies that it happens in preschool (4-6years), when their actions are done to achieve purpose; inability to achieve this purpose makes them feel guilty. He learns how things are in the world like things fall down and not upwards (Burke, 2006). Teachers and guardians who help set planning and developing achievable goals, a child becomes capable of taking lead, developing brevity independence. A child who fails to achieve this, develop aggressive behaviour of throwing tantrums, feel guilt, self- doubts, lacking in initiatives, yelling and hitting (Santrock, 2008). This stage gives the virtue of purpose (Salkind, 2004). The fourth stage is the industry versus inferiority. The stage is for a child between the ages of 7 to eleven years. The child develops a sense of self worth, feels proud of accomplishing tasks, and develops new skills. A child learns to finish tasks, do personal hygiene routines, form values morally, and develop self-confidence. A child whose efforts are applauded, they are more diligent and responsible (Santrock, 2008). A child who lacks the encouragement feels that they cannot be successful thus becoming rebellious or talk back to teachers or guardian. Sometimes, when they are unable to achieve the goals set, they feel inferior. (Roeckelein 2006) states that the virtue acquired in this stage is competence. The fifth stage according to Erikson’s theory is the identity versus confusion stage. This stage the child seeks to find out who they are and where they are heading to, and happens in the teenage years (Hendry and Kloep, 2002). The virtue that is acquired in this stage is fidelity. They explore their independent mechanisms and develop their identity. A child who is encouraged in their exploring of self become self motivated and take control, while those who are uncertain about their beliefs and what they want, become confused and insecure about who they are and the world in general (Kraus, 2008). The stage that follows is the intimacy versus isolation. Here an individual seek to find out if they love or they are loved. In this stage, the virtue acquired by young adults is love, since they seek to develop personal relationships (Burke, 2006). Since one a success of one stage is dependent on the other, this stage is dependent on an individual having self-identity thus being able to have close and committed relationships. Successful people in this stage have relationships that are stable and secure, unlike those who do not and engage in unstable relationships, they are insecure, isolated, lonely, and depressed (Santrock, 2008). According to (Ramaiah, 2008), the theory, the next stage in life development is between the ages of 35 to the age of 65. This stage is the generativity versus the stagnation. The individual seek to contribute to the society and the generation to come. The virtue acquired during this stage is care. This stage is characterized by formation of families and stability in occupations or careers. Those who have families and good jobs feel they are contributing to the society, and those who do not, feel they are not productive and are not involved in the universe, and an increased sense of life stagnation (Salkind, 2004). The final stage in the Erikson’s theory is the integrity versus despair stage. This stage is characterized by the virtue of wisdom. It happens to the seniors/ in old age and they look back in time and reflect if they have led full lives (Kraus, (2008). People who feel they did not exploit their full potential, and are not successful they feel wasted, regretful, bitter and feel desperate. Individuals, who have accomplished, face death with wisdom, contentment and a great sense of integrity (Hendry and Kloep, 2002). (Hendry and Kloep, 2002) argues that by understanding the Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, people can be able to influence behaviour that contributes to transmission of HIV/AIDS globally. Moreover, by parents being dependable, emotionally attached to their infants, encourage and applaud good morals in early childhood, be attached in their teenager’s exploration of identity in order to form committed and secure relationships. This is because risky behaviour in adulthood is influenced by early stages of life. Faithfulness is fundamental to HIV/AIDS prevention, an individual who have successfully passed through the stages will be able to be faithful to one partner as presented by (Kraus, 2008). SOCIAL AND BIOLOGICAL DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR IN RELATION TO HIV/AIDS Good health is achieved if all aspects of person are running well without internal or external factors disrupting it. Social factors are known to influence achievement of full health according to (Burke, 2006). Social factors include elements like an individual’s socio –economic status. People in low socio- economic status are susceptible to indulging in unsafe sex thus increase the probability of being infected with the HIV virus (Weiten, 2008). They are also unable to get a balanced diet, which poses a challenge for patients who are infected and are taking the ARVs. People in low socio-economic status are unable to meet their basic needs thereby indulging in prostitution in order to cater for these needs, and share needles and syringes when taking drugs as indicated in (Ramaiah, 2008). Other social factors are influence by peers (Hendry and Kloep, 2002). New infections have been recorded due to people engaging in many sexual partners, in order to fit in the social groups. It is also through social- cultural practices like polygamy, wife inheritance, traditional circumcision practices of sharing one knife, that increase the rates of HIV infections (Santrock, 2008). The need to feel loved and to belong, makes most people especially women indulge in sexual activities with multiple partners to help them gain self worth, and are unable to negotiate for safe sex, thus exposing themselves to getting infected. The media as a social tool has been helpful in advocating for prevention of HIV/AIDS practices through films and documentaries (Maru, 2009). Biological determinants are genetically predisposition of individuals to behave in a certain way. A child born from a promiscuous mother is likely to turn up the same due to the similarity in their genes (Ramaiah, 2008). Traits are therefore, passed from a parent to child. Importance of Health Psychology Health psychology is very fundamental in curbing the spread of HIV/AIDS. Understanding of psychological disorders like anorexia and bulimia is important in eating proper diets for infected persons, addiction and psychosis which will affect the overall health of a person and mental stress caused by work overload, diseases, death, or other major losses Burke, (2006). By understanding these disorders, a clinician can be able to help patients cope and survive with the infection. Health psychology is important in helping to educate medical professional and individuals on the best way to prevent contacting the illness. (Marger, 2008) Through health psychology clinicians are able to identify the relationship between the disease and characteristics of individuals. Research done in health psychology has been significant in identifying human behavior and events that do help in promoting good health, what causes diseases and its mode of transmission and help in influencing the effectiveness of care given Burke, (2006). Moreover, such research has been used in advocating for creation and implementation of health care policies while recommending methods that help improve health care Hendry, Kloep, (2002). For example, (Sigelman &Rider, 2008) Illustrates that through health psychology, there has been established the relationship between emotional instability, high-risk sexual behavior and spread of HIV/AIDS. Health psychology has help understand how the disease affects the psychology wellbeing of the infected individual, and prevent getting infected through emphasis on effective education and communication, since people do not work on minimizing the risk of HIV, due to daily stress and pressure Burke, (2006). By understanding economic, biological and social determinants to health, health psychology seek to engage policies that influence social inequities, social inequalities and social injustices like discrimination in job offers (Burke, 2006). It has also helped in improving communication between the patient and the care giver, has improved adherence to medications prescribed and medical advice given, and has help in effective diagnosing, management and treatment of pain in patients as presented by (LLC, 2010) CONCLUSION The writer of this essay therefore agrees that health psychology and understanding the lifespan development, is integral to discovering how behavior, individual characteristics, social and biological factors give rise to transmission of HIV/ AIDS, how to improve good health, and its influence in health policy making. The writer is of the opinion that true and effective treatment of illnesses cannot be done by treating the physical signs only, but there is need to look into psychological, emotional, biological, environmental and social conditions. Health psychology as discussed (Marsico, 2010), plays a major role in understanding the effects of the disease negatively or positively, promote communication between patients and clinicians, used in treatment of pain and helps in improving health care and health care practices. REFERENCES Santrock. J.W., (2008). Lifespan Development. Sidney: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Hendry .L.B., Kloep. M. (2002). Lifespan development: resources, challenges and risks. Edinburgh: Thomson Learning. Kraus. K.L. (2008).Lenses: Applying Lifespan Development Theories in Counseling. Pennsylvania: Cengage Learning. Burke. P.J. (2006).Contemporary social psychological theories. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Maru. S. (2009). Social determinants of mixed feeding behavior among HIV-infected mothers in Jos, Nigeria. New Haven: Yale University press. James. W. (2007).The Principles of Psychology, Cosimo classics: Philosophy the Principles of Psychology. New York: Cosimo, Inc. Weiten .W. (2008). 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