Smoking During Pregnancy Causes Complications to Mothers and Unborn Children - Coursework Example

SMOKING DURING PREGNANCY CAUSES COMPLICATIONS TO MOTHERS AND UNBORN CHILDREN of State Date Contents Contents 2 Introduction 3 Literature Review 4 Objective 8 Method 9 Results 10 Evaluation 11 Appendix 12 Bibliography 14 Introduction This research project seeks to discuss the hypothesis that ‘smoking during pregnancy causes complications both to the mother and to the unborn child’. Therefore, it will focus on the possibility that maternal smoking in a pregnant mother not only results in health problems on the unborn child but also on the ‘smoking’ mother. Therefore, the project research shall involve both primary and secondary sources to determine the connection between maternal smoking and any health concerns for the pregnant mother and the unborn child. Literature Review Smoking amongst pregnant mothers remains a prevalent phenomenon despite the presence of research that it presents potential harm to the unborn child as well as the mother. Many national governments have put in place measures that seek to end maternal smoking. They have come up with a myriad of strategies that aim at helping pregnant mothers to quit smoking. Pregnant women have a chance to stop smoking or reduce their smoking frequency. However, many pregnant women continue smoking, with many studies indicating that more than 50% continue. The psychoactive and reinforcing effects of nicotine and the behavioural conditioning make cigarettes addictive, which is a significant obstacle to cessation or reduction of smoking in pregnant women. Furthermore, pregnant women metabolize nicotine at a higher rate than non-pregnant women do thus, it becomes more difficult for them to stop or reduce smoking (Owing, 2005). Studies indicate pregnant mothers in lower socioeconomic levels are more likely to smoke during pregnancy. Therefore, maternal smoking is more prevalent in low-income households and less literate women. The main influence is the neighbourhood factors such as availability of maternal care, tobacco retailers and social attitudes and norms. In addition, women with addiction issues and mental disorders tend to be smokers. Various studies have found a connection between nicotine dependence with panic disorders, depressions, mood disorders, mental disorders and dysthymia. Most of the treatments that have been developed to assist pregnant women to reduce or stop smoking take a psychosocial approach. They include behavioural therapy, self-help and counselling. Behavioural therapy comprises of cognitive behaviour methods, contingency management treatment and motivational interviews. These psychosocial interventions are intended to stop smoking based on social and psychological support methods (Fong, 2006). There is an alarming increase in the diagnosis of psychopathologies amongst new-born babies. This culminates in educational and behavioural results that are progressively compromised that result from pre-natal events that that lead to abnormal learning and behaviour problems in later stages in life. This has brought about huge monetary obligations in treating infancy disabilities. There is also a staggering social and emotional toll on learners, their families and society. Medical professional can help pregnant mothers to prevent a majority of birth complications with proper pre-natal care. This aims at effective intervention and prevention of during developmental phases, to ensure the delivery of healthy babies and normal development throughout their lifespan (Martin & Dombrowski, 2008). Smoking during pregnancy puts the mother and her unborn child at the risk of developing medical complications. Nicotine from cigarettes crosses the placenta and sometimes there are higher levels of nicotine in the foetal circulation and amniotic fluid than in the woman’s plasma or circulation. This reduces oxygen flow to the foetus, increases the foetal heart rate and reduces the foetal breathing movement. Generally, smoking produces more pervasive medical complications in women than in men. For instance, it leads to negative menstrual outcomes, COPD, heart diseases, and a variety of cancers. In pregnant women, smoking increases the danger of spontaneous abortions and ectopic pregnancies. It also increases the risks of pregnancy complications such as pre-mature membrane ruptures and pre-term deliveries (Regoli, et al., 2011). Maternal smoking during pregnancy has damaging effects on the unborn child. Research has consistently shown a direct link between cigarette smoking and the development of ADHD in children. However, this increases in children that are genetically pre-disposed to ADHD. It may also lead impulsivity, hyperactivity and other impairments in a child’s behaviour. Smoking mothers are also more likely to experience spontaneous miscarriages. This has been observed in studies in which mothers have undergone vitro-fertilization and thus the number of implanted embryos, and that of successful pregnancies is known. For instance, in one study 42% of smoking mothers miscarried as compared to 19% of non-smoking mothers. A majority of these miscarriages occur in the early stages of the pregnancies and thus might go unnoticed (Mash & Wolfe, 2010). Maternal smoking also leads to instances of premature delivery, ectopic pregnancies, and stillbirths. Smoking mothers have a higher chance of developing placenta previa, a dangerous pregnancy complication where the placenta blocks the cervix, and placental abruption which involves the placenta tearing away from the uterus. These conditions have serious consequences and can lead to the deaths of the mother and the unborn child. Cigarette smoke contains many dangerous chemicals such as nicotine that are capable of causing numerous birth defects. For instance, nicotine binds to brain receptors, which usually respond to acetylcholine, a signalling molecule. Therefore, nicotine affects a developing embryo through abnormal distribution of the receptors and which causes developmental abnormalities. Several studies have indicated that nicotine exposure results in behavioural disorders in children and impaired performance in standard tests and in school tests. Although such behavioural studies are difficult to conduct and they are not conclusive, they provide additional justification for reduction or elimination of tobacco exposure to children and unborn babies (Dean, 2007). Research indicates that maternal smoking during pregnancy leads to damaged foetal chromosomes, which can result in genetic disorders and developmental defects. In addition, smoking restricts blood flow to the developing foetus and thus restricts the delivery of nutrients and oxygen as well as waste removal. This leads to slow development and thus retarded foetal development. Smoking in pregnant women may reduce the size of the unborn child’s brain and thus impair behavioural and intellectual development in later stages of the child’s life. Smoking increases the likelihood of complications during childbirth and low weight in infants. Smoking is regarded as a preventable cause of low infant birth weight that has the highest impact. Smoking during pregnancy has been linked to SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome), a condition that leads to unexplained deaths in otherwise healthy infants. Additionally, cigarette smoking has adverse effects on the nutrition status of pregnant women and thus damages foetal nutrition and growth. This is because smokers have very low intake of vitamin C, folate, beta-carotene, vitamin A and dietary fibre (Whitney, et al., 2011). Pregnant women who smoke experience sleep disruptions. The experience difficulties in getting sleep, sleep for short periods, snore loudly, have difficulties with their breathing, do not feel rested after sleeping, have trouble with waking up early and they experience excessive sleepiness during the day. Despite the fact infants that are born to smoking mothers have low birth weight, they are likely to be heavier than their peers as early as from the age of three. Research links maternal smoking to childhood obesity. On the other hand, a mother who smokes at least half a pack of cigarettes on a daily basis during her pregnancy increases the risk of the unborn child to develop diabetes by at least four times as compared with other babies. These mothers are also more likely to give birth to children with oral clefts. Smoking also damages an infant’s lungs. This occurs through a permanent change in the functioning and structure of the babies’ lungs, which puts the babies at an increased likelihood to develop respiratory infections and disorders during the early stages of their childhood (Douglas, 2012). Cigarette smoke contains carbon monoxide that reduces the oxygen quantity received by the developing foetus. It also cuts blood flow and thus smoking mothers have a higher chance of delivering babies that will develop medical complications. In addition, maternal smoking interferes with brain development as it affects genes that help in the development and functioning of myelin, a fatty substance that insulates the brain cell connectors. Therefore, these children are more prone to developing mental disorders. However, the effects occur differently in the male and female offspring. For instance, the myelin related genes are dominant in a male offspring’s’ prefrontal cortex than in that of a female offspring. Furthermore, these genes prevail in a female offspring’s hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus than that of a male offspring. (Stone, et al., 2010). Despite all the unattractive information presented, pregnant mothers have an incredible chance to give up smoking. Ordinarily, one should quit the habit before conception as it actually increases the chance of conceiving. It also gives the mother a chance to concentrate on other activities such as good nutrition, exercise, and other preparation for the delivery. However, not everyone manages to do that, and it is advisable to stop smoking as soon as one realizes that she is pregnant. This is because it ha s huge benefits to the baby. Studies have revealed that expecting mothers that stop smoking in their first trimester raise the chance of giving birth to a healthy, full-size and full-term baby to the same level as those of non-smokers. Mothers who do it in the second trimester also improve their chances by significan levels. Between weeks 14 to 16, a foetus should be gaining weight. However, if the mother is still smoking, the baby’s development will begin to lag. If the mother quits at this stage, the foetus will start to get the necessary oxygen, and the doctor will definitely observe significant changes in the baby’s development when conducting the next ultrasound. Even mothers that are aware of the potential dangers presented by their smoking habit will find it difficult to quit, especially due to the overwhelming nature of nicotine addiction. Therefore, it is advisable to seek the help of a doctor and other people to help one to stop ‘lighting up’. A regnant mother could join a community group o help her kick the habit (Woolston, n.d.). Objective The main objective of this research project is to test the hypothesis: ‘Smoking during pregnancy causes complications to both mother and the unborn child’. The project shall utilize both primary and secondary research tools to test the hypothesis with a particular emphasis on relevant literature such as journals, surveys and statistics from governement and independent bodies. Additionally, the project’s questionnaire will present a supplementary dimension to the research giving it more substance and tenability. The outcome of the project is to discover whether or not smoking during pregnancy presents health complications to the mother, and the unborn child thus creating any need to stop the habit in pregnant mothers. Method The research project will encompass primary and secondary research tools in its evaluation and then produce a conclusion of the results. The primary research consists of a direct questionnaire that will remain anonymous to protect the particiants’ identities. This will make them more comfortable to ensure the truthfulness and validity of their answers. The collection and collation of the information will ultimately lead to the determination of the hypothesis ‘Smoking during pregnancy causes complications to both mother and the unborn child’. There will only be twenty people forming the sample that will fill the questionnaires, and thus the results will not fully reflect the society. The results from this survey will not have ample significance on the national level, even though good consideration has been given to ensure that participants come from different backgrounds and different nationalities. The study of secondary research will be done from relevant literature that will be evalueated and documented, as well as the use of relevant media and suitable websites. The use of these informative research tools will form a better understanding of provide insight into this topic. Proper caution has been taken to be aware of ethical considerations while conducting this project. For instance, the anonymity of the respindents has been given significant importance throughout the study period. Results The primary research comprised of 15 questionnaires that were distributed to 20 women who responded indicating their ages when they were delivering. The women had confirmed the pregnancy with their General Practitioner in the first few weeks after they missed their menstrual period. Consequently, all births were conducted in a hospital. The results disclosed that all women received satisafctory delivery service at the hospitals. The study revealed that smoking in pregnant women had an environmentally related conection with infant ADHD symptoms. It was also associated with neo-natal lung problems characterized by increased wheezing in young children. The study also demonstrated that smokers’ children were three times moe likely to develop SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome) than those of non-smokers. The danger of a child developing SIDS increased with an increase in the number of cigarettes the mother smoked in a day. the study also sought to evaluate the effects of maternal smoking to chromosomal aberrations and mutagenesis. It established that the habit led to mutagenic effecrs on the unborn child. There was also a significant increase (three times) in the occurrence of chromosomal abnormalities such as translocations and deletions in the foetuses of smoking mothers than those of non-smoking mothers. In addition, there is evidence of interference with the hormonal balance of the pregnant women as well as long-term effects on the children’s reproductive organs. There is a higher prevalence of respiratory infectiuons in children born to smoking mothers than of non-smoking mothers. Therefore, this leads to a higher chance of such children suffering from asthma because of alteration in the biological receptors of the unborn children’s immune system, which are responsible for recognition and fighting bacteria and infections. There is a higher incidence of cleft palate aberrations in children born to smoking mothers. Evaluation The study has clearly demonstrated that maternal smoking during pregnancy results in medical complications for both mothers and their unborn babies. Thes complications include pre-mature births, pregnancy complications, still births, lowbirth weight in babies, and SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome). Smoking does not only subject the foetus to possible toxins found in tobacco smoke but also damages the functions of the placenta. Therefore, children born to smoking mothers have have a higher chance of having smaller organs, poor lung functions, and fall in quite often. Thus, it is imperative for pregnant women to evade smoking in their interest, the children’s and that of the entire society. The project was meant to determine whether smoking during pregnancy presents medical complications to the mothers and the unborn children. The results have shown that a myriad of medical complications both for the mother and the children, during and after birth, occur soley due to maternal smoking. The hypothesis has been proven to be correct through the evidence presented from primary and secondary research that smoking during pregnancy causes complications to both mother and the unborn child. Recommendations Smoking during preganncy is a significantly preventable cause of the poor results in maternal and children health. Since there is evidence on the effectiveness of stoppage of smoking during pregnancy, it should take the highest priority for public health officials. These officials should team up to ensure a vigorous, methodical and synchronized implemetation of the evidence collected about smoking during pregnancy. Appendix Questionaire 1. Please provide the age bracket (in years) in which you delivered your children a) 20-29 (b) 30-39 (c) 40-49 (d) 50 and above 2. Have you smoked cigarettes at any stage in your life (a) Yes (b) No 3. Did you smoke while you were pregnant (a)Yes (b) No 4. If Yes to (3) above in which trimester (a) First (b) Second (c) First and Second (d) Third (e) All 5. Did you attend or seek any intervention about smoking during pregnancy? (a)Yes (b) No 6. If yes to (5) above what was the outcome? 7. Did you have any pregnancy complications? (a) Yes (b) No 8. If Yes in (7) above please specify which kind of complication(s) (Please specify here) 9. How old is (are) your child(ren) (Please specify here) 10. Did your child/children develop any mental disorders? (a) Yes (b) No 11. If Yes to (10) above please specify the disorder(s) and at what age (Please specify here) 12. Did your child/children develop any respiratory disorders? (a) Yes (b) No 13. If Yes to (12) above please specify the disorder(s) and at what age (Please specify here) 14. Did your child/children develop any genetic disorders? (a) Yes (b) No 15. If Yes to (14) above please specify the disorder(s) and at what age (Please specify here) 16. Please specify any other kinds of complications that the child/children developed in their infancy/later stages (Please specify here) Bibliography Dean, M., 2007. Empty Cribs. s.l.:Arts and Science Pub. Douglas, A., 2012. The Mother of All Pregnancy Books. Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons. Fong, C. B., 2006. Smoking and health research frontiers. New York, NY: Nova Science. Martin, R. & Dombrowski, S. C., 2008. Prenatal exposures: Psychological and educational consequences for children. New York, NY: Springer. Mash, E. J. & Wolfe, D. A., 2010. Abnormal Cjild Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Owing, J. H., 2005. Trends in smoking and health research. New York, NY: Nova Biomedical Books. Regoli, R. M., Hewitt, J. D. & DeLisi, M., 2011. Delinquency in Society: The Essentials. s.l.:Sudbury, Mass, Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Stone, J., Eddleman, K., Duenwald, M. & Janice, P. C., 2010. Pregnancy for Canadians for Dummies. s.l.:John Wiley & Sons. Whitney, E., DeBruyne, L. K., Pinna, K. & Rolfes, S. R., 2011. Nutrition for Health and Health Care. Australia: Wadsworth. Woolston, C., n.d.. How smoking during pregnancy affects you and your baby. [Online] Available at: http://www.babycenter.com/0_how-smoking-during-pregnancy-affects-you-and-your-baby_1405720.bc?page=2 [Accessed 30 Nov 2013]. Read More